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1 
Fermentation Technology 
623311 
Yalun Arifin 
Chemical Engineering Dept. 
University of Surabaya
2 
Course content 
I. Introduction 
II. General aspects of fermentation processes 
III. Quantification of microbial rates 
IV. Stoichiometry of microbial growth and product 
formation 
V. Black box growth 
VI. Growth and product formation 
VII. Heat transfer in fermentation 
VIII. Mass transfer in fermentation 
IX. Unit operations in fermentation (introduction to 
downstream processing) 
X. Bioreactor
3 
Chapter I 
Introduction
4 
What is fermentation? 
• Pasteur’s definition: “life without air”, anaerobe 
red ox reactions in organisms 
• New definition: a form of metabolism in which the 
end products could be further oxidized 
For example: a yeast cell obtains 2 molecules of 
ATP per molecule of glucose when it ferments it 
to ethanol
5 
What is fermentation techniques (1)? 
Techniques for large-scale production of microbial products. 
It must both provide an optimum environment for the 
microbial synthesis of the desired product and be 
economically feasible on a large scale. They can be divided 
into surface (emersion) and submersion techniques. The latter 
may be run in batch, fed batch, continuous reactors 
In the surface techniques, the microorganisms are cultivated 
on the surface of a liquid or solid substrate. These techniques 
are very complicated and rarely used in industry
6 
What is fermentation techniques (2)? 
In the submersion processes, the microorganisms grow in a 
liquid medium. Except in traditional beer and wine 
fermentation, the medium is held in fermenters and stirred to 
obtain a homogeneous distribution of cells and medium. Most 
processes are aerobic, and for these the medium must be 
vigorously aerated. All important industrial processes 
(production of biomass and protein, antibiotics, enzymes and 
sewage treatment) are carried out by submersion processes.
7 
Some important fermentation products 
Product Organism Use 
Ethanol Saccharomyces 
cerevisiae 
Industrial solvents, 
beverages 
Glycerol Saccharomyces 
cerevisiae 
Production of 
explosives 
Lactic acid Lactobacillus 
bulgaricus 
Food and 
pharmaceutical 
Acetone and 
butanol 
Clostridium 
acetobutylicum 
Solvents 
a-amylase Bacillus subtilis Starch hydrolysis
8 
Some important fermentation products
9 
Some important fermentation products
10 
Some important fermentation products
11 
Winemaking fermenter
12 
Chapter II 
General Aspects of Fermentation 
Processes
13 
Fermenter 
The heart of the fermentation process is the fermenter. 
In general: 
• Stirred vessel, H/D » 3 
• Volume 1-1000 m3 (80 % filled) 
• Biomass up to 100 kg dry weight/m3 
• Product 10 mg/l –200 g/l
14 
Types of fermenter 
• Simple fermenters (batch and continuous) 
• Fed batch fermenter 
• Air-lift or bubble fermenter 
• Cyclone column fermenter 
• Tower fermenter 
• Other more advanced systems, etc 
The size is few liters (laboratory use) - >500 m3 
(industrial applications)
15 
Cross section of a fermenter for Penicillin production ( Copyright: 
http://web.ukonline.co.uk/webwise/spinneret/microbes/penici.htm)
16 
Cross section of a fermenter for Penicillin production ( Copyright: 
http://web.ukonline.co.uk/webwise/spinneret/microbes/penici.htm)
17 
Flow sheet of a multipurpose fermenter and its 
auxiliary equipment
18 
Fermentation medium 
• Define medium  nutritional, hormonal, and 
substratum requirement of cells 
• In most cases, the medium is independent of the 
bioreactor design and process parameters 
• The type: complex and synthetic medium (mineral 
medium) 
• Even small modifications in the medium could 
change cell line stability, product quality, yield, 
operational parameters, and downstream processing.
19 
Medium composition 
Fermentation medium consists of: 
• Macronutrients (C, H, N, S, P, Mg sources  water, 
sugars, lipid, amino acids, salt minerals) 
• Micronutrients (trace elements/ metals, vitamins) 
• Additional factors: growth factors, attachment 
proteins, transport proteins, etc) 
For aerobic culture, oxygen is sparged
20 
Inoculums 
Incoculum is the substance/ cell culture that is 
introduced to the medium. The cell then grow in the 
medium, conducting metabolisms. 
Inoculum is prepared for the inoculation before the 
fermentation starts. 
It needs to be optimized for better performance: 
• Adaptation in the medium 
• Mutation (DNA recombinant, radiation, chemical 
addition)
21 
Required value generation in fermenters as a 
function of size and productivity
22 
Chapter III 
Quantification of Microbial Rates
23 
Microbial rates of consumption or production 
C, N, P, S source 
H2O 
H+ 
O2 
heat 
CO2 
product 
biomass
24 
What are the value of rates? 
Rates of consumption or production are obtained from 
mass balance over reactors 
Mass balance over reactors 
Transport + conversion = accumulation 
(in – out) + (production – consumption) = accumulation 
Batch: transport in = transport out = 0 
Chemostat: accumulation = 0, steady state 
Fed batch: transport out = 0
25 
How are rates defined? 
Rate (ri) = amount i per hour / volume of reactor 
kg i hour 
3 - 
Substrate (-rS) = (-qS)CX 
Biomass rX = mCX 
Product rP = qPCX 
Oxygen (-r) = (-q)Cm Biomass specific rate (qi) 
qi = amount per hour / amount of organism in reactor 
Thus: 
. / 
reactor 
kg i hour 
kg . 
X 
. / 
ri = qi CX
26 
Yield = ratio of rates 
Yij = 
j 
i 
q C 
rate j = = j X 
= 
i X 
j 
r 
i 
q 
q 
q C 
r 
. 
rate . 
i 
YSX = rate of biomass production / rate of substrate 
consumption [g biomass/g substrate] 
YOX = rate of biomass production / rate of oxygen 
consumption [g biomass/g oxygen]
27 
Chapter IV 
Stoichiometry of Microbial Growth and 
Product Formation
28 
Introduction 
Cell growth and product formation are complex processes 
reflecting the overall kinetics and stoichiometry of the 
thousands of intracellular reactions that can be observed within 
a cell. 
Thermodynamic limit is important for process optimization. 
The complexity of the reactions can be represented by a simple 
pseudochemical equation. 
Several definitions have to be well understood before studying 
this chapter, for example: Ymax, Y, Y, maintenance 
SX 
ATP XOXcoefficient based on substrate (ms).
29 
Composition of biomass 
Molecules 
• Protein 30-60 % 
• Carbohydrate 5-30 % 
• Lipid 5-10 % 
• DNA 1 % 
• RNA 5-15 % 
• Ash (P, K+, Mg2+, etc) 
• Elements 
• C 40-50 % 
• H 7-10 % 
• O 20-30 % 
• N 5-10 % 
• P 1-3 % 
• Ash 3-10% 
Typical composition biomass formula: C1H1.8O0.5N0.2 
Suppose 1 kg dry biomass contains 5 % ash, what is the 
amount of organic matter in C-mol biomass?
30 
Anabolism 
Amino acids  protein 
Sugars  carbohydrate 
Fatty acids  lipids 
Nucleotides  DNA, RNA 
Sum of all reactions gives the anabolic reaction 
(…)C-source + (…)N-source + (…) P-source + O-source 
C1H1.8O0.5N0.2 + (…)H2O + (…)CO2 
Thermodynamically, energy is needed. Also for cells 
maintenance 
energy
31 
Catabolism 
Catabolism generates the energy needed for anabolism and 
maintenance. It consist of electron donor couple and 
electron donor acceptor couple 
For example: 
• Glucose + (…)O2  (…)HCO- + HO 
3 
2donor couple: glucose/HCO3 
- 
acceptor couple: O2/H2O 
• Glucose  (…)HCO3 
- + (…)ethanol 
donor couple: glucose/HCO3 
- 
acceptor couple: CO2/ethanol 
The catabolism produces Gibbs energy (DGcat.reaction)
32 
Coupled anabolism/catabolism 
C-source (anabolism) and electron-donor (catabolism) are 
often the same (e.g. organic substrate) 
Only a fraction of the substrate ends in biomass as C-source, 
while the rest is catabolized as electron-donor to provide 
energy for anabolism and maintenance 
YSX is the result of anabolic/catabolic coupling.
33 
Several examples stoichiometry of growth 
Aerobic growth on oxalate 
5.815 CO2- + 0.2 NH24 
4 
+ + 1.8575 O2 + 0.8 H+ + 5.415 H2O 
 C1H1.8O0.5N0.2 + 10.63 HCO3 
- 
What is C-source? N-source? Electron donor? Electron 
acceptor? 
YSX = 1 C-mol X / 5.815 mol oxalate = 1 C-mol X / 11.63 C-mol 
oxalate 
Catabolic reaction for oxalate: 
C2O4 
2- + 0.5 O2 + H2O  2HCO3 
- 
or H2C2O4 + 0.5 O2  H2O + 2CO2
34 
Aerobic growth on oxalate 
Catabolism 
3.715 C2O4 
2- + 1.8575 O2 + 3.715 H2O  7.43 HCO3 
- 
Anabolism (total-catabolism) 
2.1 CO2- + 0.2 NH24 
4 
+ + 0.8 H+ + 1.700 H2O 
 C1H1.8O0.5N0.2 + 3.2 HCO3 
- 
Fraction of catabolism: 3.715/5.815 = 64 % 
Fraction of anabolism: 2.1/5.815 = 36 %
35 
Microbial growth stoichiometry using 
conservation principles 
The general equation for growth stoichiometry 
-1/YSX substrate + (…)N-source + (…)electron acceptor + 
(…)H2O + (…)HCO3 
- + (…)H+ + C1H1.8O0.5N0.2 + 
(…)oxidized substrate + (…)reduced acceptor 
(…) > 0 for product, (…) < 0 for reactant 
Note: 
1. N-source, H2O, HCO3 
-, H+ and biomass are always present 
2. Only substrate and electron acceptor are case specific 
3. YSX is mostly available, all other coefficients follow the 
element or charge conservation
36 
Aerobic growth of Pseudomonas oxalaticus 
using NH+ and oxalate (CO2-) 
4 
24 
Electron donor couple? 
Electron acceptor couple? 
C-source? N-source? 
YSX is 0.0506 gram biomass/ gram oxalate and biomass has 5 % 
ash. Biomass molecular weight = 24.6 g/C-mol X 
0.0506*88*0.95 = 
YSX = 0 . 1 7 2 C-mol X/mol oxalate 
24.6
37 
• Set up the general stoichiometric equation 
f CO2- + a NH24 
4 
+ + b H+ + c O2 + d H2O  C1H1.8O0.5N0.2 + e 
HCO3 
- 
• Use Yto calculate f 
SX f = - 1 = - 1 = - 
5.815 
YSX 
0.172 
mol oxalate/C-mol X 
• There are 5 unknowns (a, b, c, d, e) and 5 conservation 
balance (C, H, O, N, charge). For example: 
C : 2f = 1 + e 
H? O? N? charge? 
• Solve for a, b, c, d, and e! 
• What is the value of respiratory quotient (RQ)? Remember 
CO 
q 
2 
O 
2 
q 
RQ =
38 
Microbial growth stoichiometry 
Degree of reduction (gi)
39 
What is degree of reduction (g)? 
i• It is about proton-electron balance in bioreactions 
• Stoichiometric quantity of compound I 
• Electron content of compound i relative to reference 
The references (g= 0): 
i HCO-/CO3 
2 
H+/OH-NH 
+/NH3 
4 
SO4 
2- 
Fe3+ 
N-source for growth 
atom gi 
C +4 
H +1 
O -2 
N -3 
S +6 
Fe +3 
+ charge -1 
- charge +1 
NH4 
+ as N-source -3 
N2 as N-source 0 
NO3 
- as N-source +5
40 
g for compounds 
For example: glucose (CHO) 
6126g glucose = 6(4) + 12(1) + 6(-2) = 24 = 4/C-glucose 
Biomass? O? Fe2+? Citric acid? Ethanol? Lactic acid? 
2g-balance 
It is used to calculate stoichiometry 
It follows from conservation relations (C, H, O, N, charge, etc) 
by eliminating the unknown stoichiometric coefficient for 
reference compounds 
It relates biomass, substrate/donor, acceptor, product 
(HO, H+, HCO-, N-source are always absent) 
23
41 
Example 
Catabolism of glucose to ethanol in anaerobic culture 
-CHO+ aCHO +bCO+ cHO +dH+ 
6126 262 2g glucose = 24, g ethanol = 12, g balance = -24+12a = 0, a = 2 
b, c, d follow from C,O, and charge conservation 
Thus: -CHO+ 2 CHO + 2 CO6126 262 
Try to solve: 
a. Catabolism of ethanol to acetate (CHO-) using O/HO 
232 
22b. Catabolism of H2S to S- using NO3 
-/NO2 
- 
c. Anabolic reaction, glucose as C-source and electron donor 
d. Complete growth reaction, aerobic growth on oxalate 
(C2O4 
2-)
42 
Further reading 
Stoichiometry calculations in undefined chemical systems for 
fermentation with complex medium, biological waste 
water treatment, and soluble and non-soluble compounds 
Measurements of lumped quantities: 
1. TOC, Carbon balance 
2. Kj-N, Kjeldahl-nitrogen for all reduced nitrogen (organic 
bound and NH4 
+), N-balance 
3. ThOD, COD balance (similar to g balance)

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Fermentation ppt

  • 1. 1 Fermentation Technology 623311 Yalun Arifin Chemical Engineering Dept. University of Surabaya
  • 2. 2 Course content I. Introduction II. General aspects of fermentation processes III. Quantification of microbial rates IV. Stoichiometry of microbial growth and product formation V. Black box growth VI. Growth and product formation VII. Heat transfer in fermentation VIII. Mass transfer in fermentation IX. Unit operations in fermentation (introduction to downstream processing) X. Bioreactor
  • 3. 3 Chapter I Introduction
  • 4. 4 What is fermentation? • Pasteur’s definition: “life without air”, anaerobe red ox reactions in organisms • New definition: a form of metabolism in which the end products could be further oxidized For example: a yeast cell obtains 2 molecules of ATP per molecule of glucose when it ferments it to ethanol
  • 5. 5 What is fermentation techniques (1)? Techniques for large-scale production of microbial products. It must both provide an optimum environment for the microbial synthesis of the desired product and be economically feasible on a large scale. They can be divided into surface (emersion) and submersion techniques. The latter may be run in batch, fed batch, continuous reactors In the surface techniques, the microorganisms are cultivated on the surface of a liquid or solid substrate. These techniques are very complicated and rarely used in industry
  • 6. 6 What is fermentation techniques (2)? In the submersion processes, the microorganisms grow in a liquid medium. Except in traditional beer and wine fermentation, the medium is held in fermenters and stirred to obtain a homogeneous distribution of cells and medium. Most processes are aerobic, and for these the medium must be vigorously aerated. All important industrial processes (production of biomass and protein, antibiotics, enzymes and sewage treatment) are carried out by submersion processes.
  • 7. 7 Some important fermentation products Product Organism Use Ethanol Saccharomyces cerevisiae Industrial solvents, beverages Glycerol Saccharomyces cerevisiae Production of explosives Lactic acid Lactobacillus bulgaricus Food and pharmaceutical Acetone and butanol Clostridium acetobutylicum Solvents a-amylase Bacillus subtilis Starch hydrolysis
  • 8. 8 Some important fermentation products
  • 9. 9 Some important fermentation products
  • 10. 10 Some important fermentation products
  • 12. 12 Chapter II General Aspects of Fermentation Processes
  • 13. 13 Fermenter The heart of the fermentation process is the fermenter. In general: • Stirred vessel, H/D » 3 • Volume 1-1000 m3 (80 % filled) • Biomass up to 100 kg dry weight/m3 • Product 10 mg/l –200 g/l
  • 14. 14 Types of fermenter • Simple fermenters (batch and continuous) • Fed batch fermenter • Air-lift or bubble fermenter • Cyclone column fermenter • Tower fermenter • Other more advanced systems, etc The size is few liters (laboratory use) - >500 m3 (industrial applications)
  • 15. 15 Cross section of a fermenter for Penicillin production ( Copyright: http://web.ukonline.co.uk/webwise/spinneret/microbes/penici.htm)
  • 16. 16 Cross section of a fermenter for Penicillin production ( Copyright: http://web.ukonline.co.uk/webwise/spinneret/microbes/penici.htm)
  • 17. 17 Flow sheet of a multipurpose fermenter and its auxiliary equipment
  • 18. 18 Fermentation medium • Define medium  nutritional, hormonal, and substratum requirement of cells • In most cases, the medium is independent of the bioreactor design and process parameters • The type: complex and synthetic medium (mineral medium) • Even small modifications in the medium could change cell line stability, product quality, yield, operational parameters, and downstream processing.
  • 19. 19 Medium composition Fermentation medium consists of: • Macronutrients (C, H, N, S, P, Mg sources  water, sugars, lipid, amino acids, salt minerals) • Micronutrients (trace elements/ metals, vitamins) • Additional factors: growth factors, attachment proteins, transport proteins, etc) For aerobic culture, oxygen is sparged
  • 20. 20 Inoculums Incoculum is the substance/ cell culture that is introduced to the medium. The cell then grow in the medium, conducting metabolisms. Inoculum is prepared for the inoculation before the fermentation starts. It needs to be optimized for better performance: • Adaptation in the medium • Mutation (DNA recombinant, radiation, chemical addition)
  • 21. 21 Required value generation in fermenters as a function of size and productivity
  • 22. 22 Chapter III Quantification of Microbial Rates
  • 23. 23 Microbial rates of consumption or production C, N, P, S source H2O H+ O2 heat CO2 product biomass
  • 24. 24 What are the value of rates? Rates of consumption or production are obtained from mass balance over reactors Mass balance over reactors Transport + conversion = accumulation (in – out) + (production – consumption) = accumulation Batch: transport in = transport out = 0 Chemostat: accumulation = 0, steady state Fed batch: transport out = 0
  • 25. 25 How are rates defined? Rate (ri) = amount i per hour / volume of reactor kg i hour 3 - Substrate (-rS) = (-qS)CX Biomass rX = mCX Product rP = qPCX Oxygen (-r) = (-q)Cm Biomass specific rate (qi) qi = amount per hour / amount of organism in reactor Thus: . / reactor kg i hour kg . X . / ri = qi CX
  • 26. 26 Yield = ratio of rates Yij = j i q C rate j = = j X = i X j r i q q q C r . rate . i YSX = rate of biomass production / rate of substrate consumption [g biomass/g substrate] YOX = rate of biomass production / rate of oxygen consumption [g biomass/g oxygen]
  • 27. 27 Chapter IV Stoichiometry of Microbial Growth and Product Formation
  • 28. 28 Introduction Cell growth and product formation are complex processes reflecting the overall kinetics and stoichiometry of the thousands of intracellular reactions that can be observed within a cell. Thermodynamic limit is important for process optimization. The complexity of the reactions can be represented by a simple pseudochemical equation. Several definitions have to be well understood before studying this chapter, for example: Ymax, Y, Y, maintenance SX ATP XOXcoefficient based on substrate (ms).
  • 29. 29 Composition of biomass Molecules • Protein 30-60 % • Carbohydrate 5-30 % • Lipid 5-10 % • DNA 1 % • RNA 5-15 % • Ash (P, K+, Mg2+, etc) • Elements • C 40-50 % • H 7-10 % • O 20-30 % • N 5-10 % • P 1-3 % • Ash 3-10% Typical composition biomass formula: C1H1.8O0.5N0.2 Suppose 1 kg dry biomass contains 5 % ash, what is the amount of organic matter in C-mol biomass?
  • 30. 30 Anabolism Amino acids  protein Sugars  carbohydrate Fatty acids  lipids Nucleotides  DNA, RNA Sum of all reactions gives the anabolic reaction (…)C-source + (…)N-source + (…) P-source + O-source C1H1.8O0.5N0.2 + (…)H2O + (…)CO2 Thermodynamically, energy is needed. Also for cells maintenance energy
  • 31. 31 Catabolism Catabolism generates the energy needed for anabolism and maintenance. It consist of electron donor couple and electron donor acceptor couple For example: • Glucose + (…)O2  (…)HCO- + HO 3 2donor couple: glucose/HCO3 - acceptor couple: O2/H2O • Glucose  (…)HCO3 - + (…)ethanol donor couple: glucose/HCO3 - acceptor couple: CO2/ethanol The catabolism produces Gibbs energy (DGcat.reaction)
  • 32. 32 Coupled anabolism/catabolism C-source (anabolism) and electron-donor (catabolism) are often the same (e.g. organic substrate) Only a fraction of the substrate ends in biomass as C-source, while the rest is catabolized as electron-donor to provide energy for anabolism and maintenance YSX is the result of anabolic/catabolic coupling.
  • 33. 33 Several examples stoichiometry of growth Aerobic growth on oxalate 5.815 CO2- + 0.2 NH24 4 + + 1.8575 O2 + 0.8 H+ + 5.415 H2O  C1H1.8O0.5N0.2 + 10.63 HCO3 - What is C-source? N-source? Electron donor? Electron acceptor? YSX = 1 C-mol X / 5.815 mol oxalate = 1 C-mol X / 11.63 C-mol oxalate Catabolic reaction for oxalate: C2O4 2- + 0.5 O2 + H2O  2HCO3 - or H2C2O4 + 0.5 O2  H2O + 2CO2
  • 34. 34 Aerobic growth on oxalate Catabolism 3.715 C2O4 2- + 1.8575 O2 + 3.715 H2O  7.43 HCO3 - Anabolism (total-catabolism) 2.1 CO2- + 0.2 NH24 4 + + 0.8 H+ + 1.700 H2O  C1H1.8O0.5N0.2 + 3.2 HCO3 - Fraction of catabolism: 3.715/5.815 = 64 % Fraction of anabolism: 2.1/5.815 = 36 %
  • 35. 35 Microbial growth stoichiometry using conservation principles The general equation for growth stoichiometry -1/YSX substrate + (…)N-source + (…)electron acceptor + (…)H2O + (…)HCO3 - + (…)H+ + C1H1.8O0.5N0.2 + (…)oxidized substrate + (…)reduced acceptor (…) > 0 for product, (…) < 0 for reactant Note: 1. N-source, H2O, HCO3 -, H+ and biomass are always present 2. Only substrate and electron acceptor are case specific 3. YSX is mostly available, all other coefficients follow the element or charge conservation
  • 36. 36 Aerobic growth of Pseudomonas oxalaticus using NH+ and oxalate (CO2-) 4 24 Electron donor couple? Electron acceptor couple? C-source? N-source? YSX is 0.0506 gram biomass/ gram oxalate and biomass has 5 % ash. Biomass molecular weight = 24.6 g/C-mol X 0.0506*88*0.95 = YSX = 0 . 1 7 2 C-mol X/mol oxalate 24.6
  • 37. 37 • Set up the general stoichiometric equation f CO2- + a NH24 4 + + b H+ + c O2 + d H2O  C1H1.8O0.5N0.2 + e HCO3 - • Use Yto calculate f SX f = - 1 = - 1 = - 5.815 YSX 0.172 mol oxalate/C-mol X • There are 5 unknowns (a, b, c, d, e) and 5 conservation balance (C, H, O, N, charge). For example: C : 2f = 1 + e H? O? N? charge? • Solve for a, b, c, d, and e! • What is the value of respiratory quotient (RQ)? Remember CO q 2 O 2 q RQ =
  • 38. 38 Microbial growth stoichiometry Degree of reduction (gi)
  • 39. 39 What is degree of reduction (g)? i• It is about proton-electron balance in bioreactions • Stoichiometric quantity of compound I • Electron content of compound i relative to reference The references (g= 0): i HCO-/CO3 2 H+/OH-NH +/NH3 4 SO4 2- Fe3+ N-source for growth atom gi C +4 H +1 O -2 N -3 S +6 Fe +3 + charge -1 - charge +1 NH4 + as N-source -3 N2 as N-source 0 NO3 - as N-source +5
  • 40. 40 g for compounds For example: glucose (CHO) 6126g glucose = 6(4) + 12(1) + 6(-2) = 24 = 4/C-glucose Biomass? O? Fe2+? Citric acid? Ethanol? Lactic acid? 2g-balance It is used to calculate stoichiometry It follows from conservation relations (C, H, O, N, charge, etc) by eliminating the unknown stoichiometric coefficient for reference compounds It relates biomass, substrate/donor, acceptor, product (HO, H+, HCO-, N-source are always absent) 23
  • 41. 41 Example Catabolism of glucose to ethanol in anaerobic culture -CHO+ aCHO +bCO+ cHO +dH+ 6126 262 2g glucose = 24, g ethanol = 12, g balance = -24+12a = 0, a = 2 b, c, d follow from C,O, and charge conservation Thus: -CHO+ 2 CHO + 2 CO6126 262 Try to solve: a. Catabolism of ethanol to acetate (CHO-) using O/HO 232 22b. Catabolism of H2S to S- using NO3 -/NO2 - c. Anabolic reaction, glucose as C-source and electron donor d. Complete growth reaction, aerobic growth on oxalate (C2O4 2-)
  • 42. 42 Further reading Stoichiometry calculations in undefined chemical systems for fermentation with complex medium, biological waste water treatment, and soluble and non-soluble compounds Measurements of lumped quantities: 1. TOC, Carbon balance 2. Kj-N, Kjeldahl-nitrogen for all reduced nitrogen (organic bound and NH4 +), N-balance 3. ThOD, COD balance (similar to g balance)