This document provides information on studying discourse through analyzing conversations and documents. It discusses generating an archive of various materials, the practicalities of recording audio and video sources, and methods for transcribing recordings. Conversation analysis is explored by examining structural organization and how refusals are handled. Analyzing documents involves considering how and where they were read or used. Overall, the document outlines different approaches for exploring language use through discourse studies.

1. Conversation,
Discourse, and
Document Analysis

2. Studying Discourse
Generating an Archive
The Practicalities of Recording
Transcribing Audio and Video Materials
Exploring Conversations
Exploring Documents

3. Studying Discourse

4. Discourse is a study of
language and how it is used
Language is never treated as a neutral,
transparent, means of communication

5. FREEDOM FIGHTER
KILLS POLITICIAN
TERRORIST KILLS
POLITICIAN
Which one is true?
Which one is correct?
Which one is factual?

6. I AM OLD
Which one is true?
Which one is correct?
Which one is factual?
I AM YOUNG
I AM A DOCTOR
I AM NOT A DOCTOR

7. People studying discourse are interested in how
language is used in certain contexts. The focus is on
how specific identities, practices, knowledges, or
meanings are produces by describe something in
just that way over another

8. Our understanding of things, concepts or ideas that
we might take for granted are not somehow
natural or pre-given but rather the product of
human actions and interactions, human history,
society and culture.

9. UNIVERSITY

10. PLASTIC

11. ELEPHANT

12. Generating an Archive

13. Data you have to generate
Data that already exists

14. Interview
Transcripts
Handwritten and
Typed Field Notes
Official Documents
distributed by Research
Team
Patient Information
Leaflets
Consent Forms
Funding
Applications
Research Reports
Academic Research
Papers and Books
Leaflets, handouts and
newspaper cuttings
Websites
Archive
Sources

15. Document Based Sources
• Primary Sources: historically contemporary and/or
first hand accounts
• Secondary Sources: historically or spatially distant
and/or second hand accounts

16. Audio and Video Based Sources
• Radio and Television programmes
• News Interviews
• Televised Debates
• Documentaries
• Talk Shows
• Your own material

17. You should generate an archive - a diverse
collection of materials that enable you to engage
with and thing about the specific research problem
or question
Your archive could contain document-based
sources as well as audio and visual-based sources

18. Read other academic work on your specific topic
and find out what research materials they used
and how they collected them

19. Rather than solely relying on researcher-initiated
audio and visual based materials (e.g. interviews
and focus groups), some academics argue that you
should focus on naturally occurring data

20. The Practicalities of Recording

21. Audio Recorder or Video Camera
Additional Batteries
External Microphones
Notepad and Pen
A good working knowledge of how to set
up and use this equipment

22. Learn about your recording equipment prior to entering
the field!
Just keep playing with it as often as you can

23. Note-taking after the encounter
Note-taking during the encounter
Audiotaping the encounter
Videotaping the encounter

24. Video Recording Positives and Negatives
• Records non-verbal conduct
• Aids the transcription process
• Participants may be less likely to agree to take part
• Participants may take a long time to get accustomed to
the equipment
• An additional researcher may have to operate the
camera

25. Recording at a Field Site
(e.g. Ethnographic Work)
• What form of recording is acceptable to the participants?
• What form of recording is feasible in this specific site?
• Focus on:
• The faces, gestures, and bodies of the participants
• Any tools or equipment or objects that are being used
• Any documents being used

26. Transcribing Audio and Video Materials

27. No-one smiles this much when
they are cutting a courgette!

28. Describing the Scene
On a simple level, transcript can be a description of the
recorded event

29. Describing the Scene
Ben has been asked to prepare a
cucumber - to peel and de-seed it.
Mary and Tim offer Ben two
different, contrasting ways to prepare
that cucumber
Very little access to how this specific interaction emerged

30. Describing the Scene
Ben has been asked to prepare a cucumber - to peel and de-
seed it. Mary notices the cucumber is frozen. She leans over
the table, picks the cucumber up in one hand, picks up a
knife in the other and then starts to inspect it, turning it over
in her hands. She smiles and she waits for a gap in the talk
between Ben and Tim and then says, with some humour in
her voice “it’s frozen”
Better level of detail, but this can be very difficult to write
out in full
Doesn’t give you a detailed structure of what happened

31. TheBasicTranscript 1 Mary Its frozen.
2 (pause)
3 Tim Is it?
4 May Yeah ((laughs)). I don’t think you can use it
5 (pause)
6 Ben It is frozen
7
8
Mary Yeah. The bottom of the fridge is
8 Ben Ice cold
9 Mary Yeah. I’ll see if there’s part of it that isn’t
10 (pause)
11 Mary Yeah.
12 Tim Is it all frozen?
13 Mary No, this part of it’s fine. Okay, when you peel it
14 Ben Uh huh
15 Mary Slice it in four lengthways
16 Ben Oh and then just ((overlap))
17 Mary a n d t h e n ((overlap)) just take the seeds out
18 Tim Or alternatively slice it in half and use a teaspoon and run it along
19 Mary You can choose whichever method you prefer
20 Tim And obviously there is going to be politics ((Mary
21 laughs)) depending on which method you choose
22 Mary Absolutely. No there won’t
23 Ben Secretly there will be though
24 Mary Heh?
25 Ben Secretly there will be ((Mary laughs)
Extract 1 (The politics of cucumbers : Kitchen 10: 2.17-2.17

32. TheBasicTranscript 1 Mary Its frozen.
2 (pause)
3 Tim Is it?
4 May Yeah ((laughs)). I don’t think you can use it
5 (pause)
6 Ben It is frozen
7
8
Mary Yeah. The bottom of the fridge is
8 Ben Ice cold
9 Mary Yeah. I’ll see if there’s part of it that isn’t
10 (pause)
11 Mary Yeah.
12 Tim Is it all frozen?
13 Mary No, this part of it’s fine. Okay, when you peel it
14 Ben Uh huh
15 Mary Slice it in four lengthways
16 Ben Oh and then just ((overlap))
17 Mary a n d t h e n ((overlap)) just take the seeds out
18 Tim Or alternatively slice it in half and use a teaspoon and run it along
19 Mary You can choose whichever method you prefer
20 Tim And obviously there is going to be politics ((Mary
21 laughs)) depending on which method you choose
22 Mary Absolutely. No there won’t
23 Ben Secretly there will be though
24 Mary Heh?
25 Ben Secretly there will be ((Mary laughs)
Extract 1 (The politics of cucumbers : Kitchen 10: 2.17-2.17
Mixture of Extract number,
descriptive title, technical title
Descriptive names used for each
person.
Each line has a number
Use of lines makes it look like
structured conversation. But
notice ((overlap))

33. How much detail to include?
Argued by many that transcripts should be verbatim
accounts of what transpired in the interview.
Should not be tidied up to make them sound better

34. How much detail to include?
Argued by many that transcripts should be verbatim
accounts of what transpired in the interview. Should not be
tidied up to make them sound better
Pauses
Short pause in tasing denoted by a series of dots (…)
Number of dots can be used to signify amount of time that has passed
Laughing, Coughing etc. Indicate in parenthesis e.g. (coughs), (laughs)
Interuptions
Indicate speech is broken off at mid sentence by including a hyphen. e,g. What do
you-
Overlapping speech
Use a hyphen to indicate the interruption for speaker A, and then use
(overlapping) to indicate the interruption for speaker B
Garbled speech
Flag words that are not clear with square brackets and question marks.
Use a number of x to show that speech cant be understood at all.
Emphasis Use caps to denote strong emphasis e.g. “He did WHAT”
Held Sounds Repeat the sound that are held, separated by hyphens e.g. No-o-o-o-o
Paraphrasing Other When someone assumes a voice that indicates a parody use (mimicking voice)

35. How much detail to include?
Can take this one step further (…you won’t though…)
Jefferson style transcript

38. Detail in Video Transcriptions
Other things to consider when you are transcribing videos
• Gaze - the direction of participants gaze and how it shifts
during interactions
• Touch - Self-touching and touching others. Touching and
manipulating objects
• Gestures - actions such as pointing or illustrating
• Posture - orientation of head, shoulders, and lower body
• Spatial Positioning - Where people are in relation to
others
• Other Actions - Including walking

40. Exploring Conversations

41. 1 Sue Wonder how he found out an all that
2 (0.4)
3 Fiona I:::: I don’t know through work or Kay probably
Does Fiona know? Most people would say that Fiona is
displaying a hunch
Is she saying “Don’t hold me accountable for the accuracy of
this information!”
Looking beyond the simple words

42. 1 John So what do you think about bicycles on campus
2 Judy I think they’re terrible
3 John Sure is about a MILLION of ‘em
4 Judy eh heh
1. John invites Judy to talk about a topic
2. Judy talks about the topic
3. John then gives his perspective on the same topic and his
perspective closely fits with Judy’s
Exploring a mundane moment in talk

43. 1 Dr How’s Bobby doing?
2 Mo
Well he’s doing pretty good you know especially in the school. I
explained to the teacher what you told me that he might be sent
to a special class maybe, that I was not sure. And he says you
know I asks his opinion, an’ he says that he was doing pretty
god in the school. Now he thinks he’s not gonna need to be sent
to another school3 Dr He doesn’t think he’s gonna need to be sent?
4 Mo
Yeah that he was catching on a little bit but hu more you know
like I said, that he needs a- you know I was ‘splaining other that
I’m you know that I know for sure that he needs some special
class or something.
5 Dr Wu’ shauna you think his problem is?
6 Mo Speech.
7 Dr Yeah, his main problem is you know, a language problem.
8 Mo Yeah, language
Do caution

44. We follow a structure in most conversations. Thing about a
phone call:
Structural Organisation
• Opening - Say hellos and sometimes work out who is talking
and is it the person you wanted to speak to
• Reason for call - introduce reason for getting in touch
• Discussion - May or may not go on for a long time
• New topic emerges - Again, may or may not happen
• Discussion of new topic
• Close - Say goodbyes.

45. Most of the time we’re used to seeing conversations that
have agreement and acceptance
Refusals and Disagreements
1 A Well, will you help me (out
2 B (I certainly will
1 A It’s really a clear lake, isn’t it?
2 B It’s wonderful
Agreement happens immediately, with no gap in the talk,
and sometimes even overlapping.

46. Sometimes we have to deal with refusals and
disagreements…
Refusals and Disagreements
1 A Wanna come down ’n have a bit a’ lunch with me?
2 B Wul yer real sweet hon, uhh, let…
3 A D’you have sumps else?
1 C And we were wondering if there’s anything we can do to help
2 B
0.7
Well that’s most kind Heatherton…
At the moment no…because we’ve still got the bo:ys at
home

47. Main difference is the inclusion of the following actions:
Refusals and Disagreements
• Delays: gaps before responses, or delays before an answer is
given
• Hesitations: like ‘mm’ ‘erm’ and in-breath and out-breath
• Prefaces: like ‘well’ and ‘uh’, agreement tokens like ‘yeah’
• Mitigations: apologies and appreciations
Why is this important though? Gives information about
how different groups can deal with rejection and
alternative theories

48. Exploring Documents

49. Thinking about Documents
• How did you read the document?
• Did you take notes on a separate piece of paper?
• How do your notes relate to or transform the text?
• Was it a photocopy?
• Did you read sections out loud to others?
• Where were you reading this?
• With Friends?
• In the Library?
Think about a time where you have been doing additional
research about a module topic*
*lol

50. Document Analysis isn’t just about the
Document
Need to examine the material culture of where and how
this is happening
• Things
• Technology
• Artefacts
• Built Environment

51. Studies of how documents - and other objects and
technologies - feature in and are used in mundane
interactions can help us throw new light on the
structures of social life.

52. Ideas on the Documents you create
• That you describe how you generated, worked with, and analysed
your materials.
• Checked and re-checked your ideas against materials and searched
for instances that might contradict your claims
• Your main or central analytic points give the reader detailed access
to the materials that led you to make these claims
• That your ideas have been checked against previous work by other
authors in this topic
• That you have, if possible, presented or discussed your findings with
those that you have studied
Different solutions available to you to demonstrate to
others that your argument is convincing. Different ways to
do this include:

53. Studying Discourse
Generating an Archive
The Practicalities of Recording
Transcribing Audio and Video Materials
Exploring Conversations
Exploring Documents

54. Information in this
presentation was
based on…