A comprehensive presentation on blended learning that includes definitions, history and evolution of instructional media, tri-component blended learning model, and elasticity of blended learning.

1. Blended Learning: Instructional Media & Pedagogical Considerations Dr. Jolly Holden Chairman Emeritus, United States Distance Learning Association START Skip Intro: Click for Presentation Map

2. Why Blended Learning: The Challenge Driven by the demand to increase learning opportunities, educators and trainers are continually challenged to develop and integrate instructional delivery options and reduce costs without impacting instructional integrity. Instructional designers and course developers are constantly searching for the for right mix of live and virtual courseware delivery methods, which leads to these questions: Q1: What is the most appropriate mix of instructional media, and… Q2: What are the variables to consider when selecting the most appropriate media?

3. Blended learning allows the instructional designer the opportunity to leverage the strengths of instructional media with the efficacy of the instructional components to ensure the instructional goal is attained. For a blended learning solution to be successful , it is imperative a thorough media analysis and needs assessment is conducted while addressing the fundamental components of the instructional systems design process. Rules of Engagement for Blended Learning “ Migrating to blended learning formats requires instructional design analysis that integrates with the technologies that will be utilized to deliver it. ” The e-Learning Developers Journal (2005)

8. Presentation Map Learning Model Learning Environment Component Instructional Component Media Component Navigation Bar Click for Glossary Blended Learning Definitions Media Evolution Learning Environments ( synchronous & asynchronous) Elasticity Implications (examples from the enterprise) Click the “Glossary” button for a definition of terms used in this presentation The Navigation Bar is located on each screen and by clicking the links provides direct access to that topic Click the right arrow button for the next slide Click the left arrow button for the previous slide Click to return to Title Page

13. A Corporate Training Perspective The use of multiple instructional delivery media to deliver one course or curriculum, such as a sales training course with pre-reading, asynchronous online product knowledge training, and synchronous lectures and role play practices. Source: e-Learning Guild’s Research Report , Synchronous Learning Systems , June 2008 Synchronous and asynchronous media. For clarification, blended learning is also applied to a mix of online and face-to-face training, and more generally to approaches to course design and delivery that combine different modalities (e.g., self-paced Web-based training, followed by classroom instruction, accompanied by printed job aids, and supplemented by virtual classroom follow-up sessions). Source: e-Learning Guild Handbook on Synchronous e-Learning (2007) Click for Glossary Blended Learning Definitions

14. Click for Glossary Blended Learning Definitions A Chief Learning Officer Perspective “ Executing a learning strategy that integrates multiple delivery modalities (both synchronous and asynchronous) and, in doing so, creating the best possible learning solution for your target audience.” Source: Chief Learning Officer Magazine ( www.clomedia.com ), Executing Blended Learning , Jan., 2009

15. Although this quote sounds as if it were referring to a new technological break- through, in reality, this profound statement was uttered by the Reverend Joseph H. Odell, D. D. (1910) in his address titled "The New Era in Education: A Study of the Psychology of Correspondence Methods of Instruction" delivered in 1910 at the dedication of the instruction building of the International Correspondence Schools in Scranton, Pennsylvania. “ I do not know any innovation upon existing methods more radical and revolutionary than this” Click for Glossary Evolution of Instructional Media: When it all Began…

16. Click for Glossary What does it mean to the future of education and training? As instructional media continues to evolve, propelled by advances in technology and fueled by the need to increase learning opportunities, the evolution and advancements of instructional media will continue to accelerate as well. As a result, blended learning will become an integral component in developing a comprehensive learning strategy. Consequently, When developing a learning strategy for the future, it is sometimes prudent to study the past in order to develop a plan for tomorrow… Evolution of Instructional Media: The Emergence of Blended Learning “ The term blended learning has been redefined, from a combination of instructor and Web-based training to a blend of many types of interactive content” Josh Bersin , “Today’s High-Impact Learning Organization”, Chief Learning Officer Magazine, Aug, 2008

18. Computer-mediated Learning (circa 1970-present) Computer-based Training (CBT) Web-based Training Online Learning With the introduction of the computer, learning communities quickly realized the potential of this powerful new technology and adopted it as another delivery tool. As the computer continued to evolve, a new generation of the computer-mediated instruction arrived, and with the emergence of the internet, new collaborative tools and delivery media also appeared. Note: In the early 90’s, a migration began from a mainframe-centric environment to a more of a stand-alone “distributed” computer environment that allowed for more local hosting of computer-based training (CBT). Next

19. Extending the Family Tree of Instructional Media to Tomorrow Change is inevitable, and tomorrow will bring newer and better technologies, accompanied by a new set of challenges, but the goal is the same: Optimize the technology without sacrificing instructional quality. In the end, incorporating sound instructional design principles will provide for a solid foundation to ensure learning outcomes are attained. Click for Glossary “ In this global, networked world, several technologies including search engines, blogs, podcasts, Web 2.0 applications and virtual worlds such as Second Life will be used for learning.” Ed Hoff, CLO IBM , Learning in the 21 st Century : A Brave New World , CLO Magazine, April, 2008 “ Distance learning will evolve from basic enrollment in computer and web-based courses to virtual learning environments that support online collaboration and classes taught by both live and virtual instructors.” Air Force White Paper,. On Learning: The Future of Air Force Education and Training (2008)

21. Although synchronicity is dichotomous, per se, either synchronous or asynchronous, it does not mean they are mutually exclusive when considering a blended learning solution . If viewed as being on opposite ends of a continuum, the degree to which these two dichotomous environments can be integrated would result in a blending of synchronicity. Therefore, to attain the most optimum blend, one must consider the vehicle(s) that deliver the content, the [learning environment] in which the learning occurs, and the instructional objective(s) [which drive the development of the content and instructional strategies]. Consequently, blended learning can include any combination of media that supports instruction, regardless of the mix of synchronous or asynchronous media. Blended Learning Synchronous Asynchronous “ Courses will combine live, virtual and constructive formats even while being distributed to increase training effectiveness and as well as shift to more cost-effective methods.” Air Force White Paper,. On Learning: The Future of Air Force Education and Training (2008) Click for Glossary Integration of Both Dimensions: The Concept of Synchronicity

22. Click for Glossary Blended Learning Model Concept Map Depicted in this concept map are the blended learning model subcomponents. The degree of integration of each of the subcomponents is based upon evaluating specific attributes of each component, resulting in the most appropriate blend to ensure attainment of the instructional goal. Note: This model is based upon a set of related components, although evaluated separately, are viewed holistically , per se, each component’s specific contribution must be viewed as it relates to the sum total of all the parts… which results in a comprehensive blended learning solution.

23. A model can be a description of a system or phenomenon that accounts for its known or inferred properties and used for further study of its characteristics. Therefore, a blended learning model can be used as a guide in evaluating and integrating separate components that would result in an instructionally sound learning situation. “ Collaborative online learning is now recognized as a component of a mature blended-learning strategy.” Bersin & Associates, Technology Update: Open Source e-Learning Systems, June 2007 Click for Glossary Blended Learning Model Components Media Component Learning Environment Component Instructional Component Media component: Used to evaluate the most appropriate media to delivery the content Learning environment component: Evaluates the learning environment (synchronous/asynchronous) that supports the instructional objectives Instructional component: Used to select the most appropriate instructional strategies that support the learning objectives

24. Click for Glossary Blended Learning Model Components Complexity Instructional Strategies Instructional Objectives Content Rapidity of Change Instructional Component Multimedia (aural/visual) Interactivity Didactic Collaboration (P2P) Asynchronous Dialectic Collaboration (P2P) Synchronous Media Component Collaborative Tools Synchronicity Asynchronous Instructional Media Synchronous Instructional Media Symmetry Asymmetrical Media Symmetrical Media Distance Learning Learning Environment Component Asynchronous Synchronous Traditional Classroom Click on any of the model component links for detailed information for that specific component. Click this button for a summary of each component

25. Media Learning Environment The power of blended learning is in its elasticity Instructional Click for Glossary Concept of Elasticity in Blended Learning Depending upon the [cognitive] level of the learning objectives and the learning environment (synchronous vis-a-vis asynchronous), different combinations of instructional media and instructional strategies can support various levels of interactivity to attain the most appropriate "blend". As the blend changes, the model becomes "elastic", allowing the instructional designer to modify the blend to meet specific learning outcomes.

26. What is the right mix? There may be several “blended” solutions that can meet the instructional objectives, so consider the qualitative merits of all instructional media. The ultimate goal is to increase performance through the systematic evaluation of intra-dependent variables that would result in the most appropriate integration of media. Click for Glossary Elasticity in Blended Learning Click here for another view of the blend Media Learning Environment Instructional With that said, any combination of instructional delivery medium, including the traditional classroom, can result in a blended learning solution, but the instructional efficacy of the solution is most dependent upon the instructional and learning environment components.

28. The greatest change in the delivery mix will continue to come via the increased adoption of e-learning and the increased use of portable technologies. IBM’s perspective on blended learning and workforce mobility Click for Glossary Survey of CLOs Use of Blended Learning (con’t)

29. “ [There is] an important link between content type and delivery method and that student-instructor interaction receives strong consideration in determining which delivery methods get employed within an organization...” and “ The value of student-to-instructor interaction remains a primary driver for both classroom-based ILT and synchronous e-learning….as well as student-to-student interaction.” CLO Magazine., July, 2007, pg. 48-49 Click for Glossary Survey of CLOs Use of Blended Learning (con’t)

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33. Learning Environment Component Distance Learning Traditional Classroom Synchronous Asynchronous Back to Main Page Learning Environment Page Synchronous Asynchronous A learning environment can either be synchronous or asynchronous, per se, the learning is either occurring real-time with an instructor (synchronous), or it is occurring without the presence of an instructor (asynchronous). Regardless, each learning environment has their distinct advantages and disadvantages, and the goal of developing a blended learning strategy is to leverage those specific attributes of each environment to ensure the most optimum use of resources to attain the instructional goal.

36. Media Component Some instructional media may be more appropriate than others in supporting either a synchronous or asynchronous learning environment, but no single medium is inherently better or worse than another. Although the delivery medium does not affect the content, the selection of certain media may affect how you design the content based on the attributes of that specific medium. Regardless, when the “most appropriate” media are selected based on the ISD process, then learning outcomes will not be affected. Back to Main Page Media Component Taxonomy Portability Synchronicity Asynchronous Instructional Media Synchronous Instructional Media Portability Wikis, blogs, discussion boards Media are vehicles that simply deliver their contents. When developing a blended learning solution, the selection of the most appropriate media is not based solely on the attributes of the media, but the potential impact it may have on the design of the instructional components and corresponding physical learning environment. Click here for more on media mapped to the distance learning environment.

39. Synchronous Instructional Media Internet-based and delivered over the Web that enable synchronous audio and/or text chat, video, document and application sharing, whiteboards, presentations, etc. Can support synchronous oral interaction between the instructor and remote students at multiple locations as well as supporting Multi-User Virtual Environment (MUVE) or webinars. Due to bandwidth limitations (basically, low-bandwidth applications), high-resolution images and video may be limited. Note: The application of web conferencing in a learning environment is also known as synchronous learning systems (SLS). Synchronous Web-Based Instruction (WBI)/Web Conferencing (Synchronous Learning Systems) ITV is defined as a one-way, full motion video and audio transmission of classroom instruction through a telecommunications channel such as satellite, cable TV, or Instructional TV Fixed Service (ITFS), a dedicated 2.5GHz spectrum managed by the FCC and limited to educational programming only, usually transmitted via microwave Instructional Television (ITV) Audiographics combines audio conferencing with personal computer text and graphics, allowing both voice and data to be transmitted to remote sites. Typically, a site consists of audio conference equipment, plus a large screen that serves as an electronic whiteboard. This system allows for two-way data exchange (limited to high-resolution still images only) and a synchronous interactive environment between the instructor and students at multiple sites. Audiographics An audio-only environment in which students in different locations use telephones or audio conferencing equipment to communicate with each other in real time. Supports a synchronous interactive environment between the instructor, remote students, and multiple sites but does not support visual images and graphics, and often supplemented by electronic or printed handouts. Can be integrated with other delivery systems to provide synchronous audio. Audio Conferencing Description Technology Delivery

40. Synchronous Instructional Media towers. This specific application would not be available to instructional programming programming received via commercial cable TV). Due to the bandwidth available via satellite or ITFS, this delivery medium can emulate the live, traditional classroom environment but at a distance. ITV is sometimes referred to as Business Television (BTV), Interactive Video Teletraining, or Interactive TV, and can be transmitted via analog or digital systems. Instructional Television (ITV)- con’t Satellite e-learning represents the next generation of distributed media. Utilizing IP (Internet Protocol) as the network layer and distribution technology, it also incorporates the latest MPEG (Moving Picture Experts Group) video standard or latest version of Widows Media. Similar in application to ITV, it allows for the live traditional classroom to be transmitted to a remote site while synchronous oral interactivity is supported by audio teleconferencing or student response systems integrating audio and keypad technology (data interaction). Additionally, since satellite e-learning uses IP, video streaming can be utilized at extremely high bandwidths (~3.0Mbps). The IP-based video can be distributed directly to the user’s end-point and then distributed via the LAN to either a classroom or desktop computer, or both. Also, satellite e-learning can easily transmit large multimedia/web-based training modules (known as data casting) without being constrained by bandwidth, as is common with a terrestrial network. This capability allows the data to bypass the WAN by transmitting directly to the user’s end-point and then distributed locally via the LAN, thereby effectively bypassing the terrestrial infrastructure and the Internet. Satellite e-learning is also referred to as BTV/IP (Business Television/Internet Protocol). Satellite e-learning Description Technology Delivery

41. Synchronous Instructional Media Technology Delivery Description Video Teleconferencing (VTC) VTC systems are two-way communication systems that offer both audio and video from local and remote sites and provide for synchronous interaction between the instructor and remote students at multiple locations. It allows for the instructor to observe the students at the far end (remote location), allowing the student to demonstrate an event. These systems can be terrestrial, satellite-based, or microwave-based Instructional TV Fixed Service (ITFS). Generally VTCs transmit and receive between 384Kbps – 1.5Mbps, with the next generation coders/decoders (codecs) IP enabled.

42. Back to Taxonomy When evaluating media components, wikis, blogs, and discussion boards are primarily collaborative tools and not considered stand-alone instructional media delivery options. However, they can be integrated into a course/learning module in developing a social learning structure that supports active learning and knowledge construction through peer-to-peer interaction. In a research study investigating the interplay of synchronous and asynchronous communication used in online courses, students seemed more satisfied with face-to-face courses that used asynchronous discussion boards as alternative communication media than courses that were entirely asynchronous based. Significant data were found to indicate the effect of synchronous media in a mostly asynchronous discussion forum. The ability of synchronous media to foster social presence is not shown or disproved by the research Source: A Field Study of Use of Synchronous Chat in Online Courses (2002), Retrieved from: http://www.hicss.hawaii.edu/HICSS36/HICSSpapers/CLTSL03.pdf

43. Asynchronous Instructional Media Technology Delivery Description Asynchronous Web-Based Instruction (WBI) On-demand, online-based instruction stored on a server and accessed across a distributed electronic network. It can be delivered over the Internet or private local area network (LANs) or Wide Area Networks (WANs) where the content is displayed utilizing a web browser. Student access is asynchronous, self-paced, and does not provide for synchronous interaction between the instructor and the remote student. High-resolution images and video may be limited due to available bandwidth. Computer Based Instruction (CBI) Interactive instructional experience between a computer and the learner where the computer provides the majority of the stimulus and the student responds. T he computer is the storage and delivery device with all content resident on the student’s computer. It provides the primary display and storage capability and can support high-resolution images and video. Correspondence (print) Entirely print-based, asynchronous and self-paced. Can be augmented through the use of multimedia CD-ROM. Instructor feedback can be facilitated through the use of e-mail. Used extensively to support other media Recorded Audio (Tape and digital broadcast) Recorded audio content—on tape or transmitted electronically—which can be used as a stand-alone delivery tool or part of a blended learning approach. Can be used as the sole means of content or as part of a blended approach. Recorded Video (Tape and digital broadcast) A method of capturing learning content on tape or as a digital file for viewing on-demand. Can be used as the sole means of content or as part of a blended approach. Often used to capture a real time event and is an effective distribution medium that supports high-resolution images and video but does not support a synchronous interactive environment between the instructor and the remote student.

46. Instructional Component: Variables to Consider Instructional Objectives Instructional Strategies Complexity Rapidity of Change Multimedia (aural/visual) Interactivity (strategies supporting specific media) Collaboration (P2P) Synchronous Asynchronous Didactic # Collaboration (P2P) Dialectic* * Instructor-student-instructor # Instructor-student Content Back to Main Page Instructional Component Instructional Objectives Instructional Strategies When developing a blended learning solution, maintaining instructional quality is paramount. Consequently, learning objectives are never compromised when developing a blended learning solution. Instructional strategies are the products of learning objectives and serve to ensure the learning objectives and facilitate the transfer of learning.

51. Bloom’s Taxonomy of Cognitive Objectives A metaphor depicting the taxonomy of learning objectives can be thought as assembling blocks in building a pyramid. The knowledge and comprehension levels create the foundation from which one develops higher order thinking skills commensurate with the higher cognitive levels (analysis, synthesis,& evaluation). Lower Higher Back to Main Page Instructional Component Instructional Objectives Instructional Strategies Knowing Doing Knowledge The first level of learning is knowledge. Knowledge can be characterized as awareness of specifics and of the ways and means of dealing with specifics. The knowledge level focuses on memory or recall where the learner recognizes information, ideas, principles in the approximate form in which they were learned. Comprehension Comprehension is the next level of learning and encompasses understanding. Has the knowledge been internalized or understood? The student should be able to translate, comprehend, or interpret information based on the knowledge. Application Application is the use of knowledge. Can the student use the knowledge in a new situation? It can also be the application of theory to solve a real world problem. The student selects, transfers, and uses data and principles to complete a problem or task. Analysis Analysis involves taking apart a piece of knowledge, and investigates parts of a concept. It can only occur if the student has obtained knowledge of and comprehends a concept. The student examines, classifies, hypothesizes, collects data, and draws conclusions. Synthesis Synthesis is the creative act. It’s the taking of knowledge and the creation of something new. It is an inductive process—one of building rather than one of breaking down. The student originates, integrates, and combines ideas into something new to him/her. Evaluation Evaluation is judgment or decision-making where the student appraises, assesses or criticizes on a basis of specific standards/criteria.

53. Table of Instructional Strategies Back to Main Page Instructional Component Instructional Objectives Instructional Strategies Instructional Strategies Description Narration/Lecture Allows for transfer of learning through mere declaration and explication of knowledge. When interaction is available, it allows for reinforcement of behavior, spontaneous questioning, dialogue, and social interaction with immediate feedback. Note: Lecture is a very efficient strategy to transfer large amounts of content but has a high cognitive load. Demonstration Skill transfer through the depiction of procedural tasks, events, processes, etc. Role Playing Involves recreating a situation relating to a real-world problem in which participants act out various roles. Promotes an understanding of other people’s positions and their attitudes as well as the procedures that may be used for diagnosing and solving problems. Learners may assume the role of a particular character, organization, professional occupation, etc. Guided Discussion Supports a synchronous, dialectic learning environment through the spontaneous and free-flowing exchange of information. Encourages active, participatory learning that supports knowledge transfer through dialogue. Students may discuss material more in-depth, share insights and experiences, and answer questions. Simulation Replicates or mimics a real event and allows for continual observation. A simulation creates a realistic model of an actual situation or environment. Illustration Depicts abstract concepts with evocative, palpable real-world examples.

54. Back to Main Page Instructional Component Instructional Objectives Instructional Strategies Table of Instructional Strategies Instructional Strategies Description Imagery Imagery is the mental visualization of objects, events, and arrays. It enables internalized visual images that relate to information to be learned. Imagery helps to create or recreate an experience in the learner’s mind. Imagery involves all the senses: visual, kinesthetic, auditory, and tactile. Modeling A contrived, simplified version of an object or concept that encapsulates its salient features. Brainstorming Brainstorming is a valid and effective problem-solving method in which criticism is delayed and imaginative ways of understanding a situation are welcomed, where quantity is wanted and combination and improvement are sought. Brainstorming can occur with individuals or in a group setting, and involves generating a vast number of ideas in order to find an effective method for solving a problem. Case Studies A problem-solving strategy similar to simulation that works by presenting a realistic situation that requires learners to respond and explore possible solutions. Drill & Practice Repetition of a task or behavior until the desired learning outcome is achieved. Allows for transfer of knowledge from working memory to long-term memory.

55. Instructional Strategies Supporting Asynchronous Media Back to Main Page Instructional Component Instructional Objectives Instructional Strategies Media Appropriate Instructional Strategy Asynchronous Web-Based Instruction (WBI) - Narration/Description (Lecture) - Tutorials - Demonstrations - Case Studies - Simulations - Modeling - Illustrations - Role Playing - Drill and Practice Computer Based Instruction (CBI) - Narration/Description - Illustrations - Case Studies - Simulation - Role Playing - Drill and Practice - Demonstration - Tutorials Correspondence (print) - Narration/Description - Drill and Practice - Case Studies - Narration Recorded Audio (Tape and digital broadcast/RSS) - Narration/Description (Lecture) Recorded Video (Tape and digital broadcast) - Narration/Description (Lecture) - Case Studies - Illustrations

62. Portability: An IBM Workforce Mobility Perspective* Blended learning allows companies to mix scheduled and unscheduled training modules and structured and unstructured learning experiences, as well as provide self-paced material to keep today’s learners engaged. * Source: On demand learning: blended learning for today’s evolving workforce, IBM Learning Solutions, September 2005, Available at: http://www-935.ibm.com/services/us/imc/pdf/gw510-6396-on-demand-learning.pdf Return to previous page

64. What Might Go in the Blend* * Source: Allison Rossett and Rebecca Vaughan Frazee, Blended Learning Opportunities , American Management Association Special Report, 2006 Return to previous page

67. Teaching with Instructional Television—Did you Know… Return to previous page There is a tendency to regard the future of distance learning as belonging solely to online or web classes. However, some researchers have found that courses offered in ITV were sometimes preferred by students even when the same course was offered online. Also, the visual and interactive nature of instructional television benefited students and that student satisfaction with ITV has been generally confirmed. Teaching with ITV (Jan, 2008). International Journal of Instructional Technology and Distance Learning: http://www.itdl.org/Journal/Jan_08/index.htm

68. Dialectic . Discussion and reasoning by dialogue as a method of intellectual investigation; in a learning environment, the inquiry method by which the instructor and student engage in question and answering. Didactic. Designed or intended to teach; intended to convey instruction and information. In a learning environment, the transfer of information is primarily one-way from the instructor to the student as in a lecture. Distance Learning. The acquisition of knowledge and skills through mediated information and instruction; also, structured learning that takes place without the physical presence of the instructor. Distance Education . Institutionally based formal education where the learning group is separated and where interactive communications systems are used to connect instructors, learners, and resources. Distributed Learning: Structured learning mediated with technology that does not require the physical presence of the instructor. Distributed learning models can be used in combination with other forms of instruction or it can be used to create wholly virtual classrooms (source: DODI 1322.26, June 16, 2006). e-Learning. The delivery of content via the Internet, intranet-extranet, audio and videotape, satellite broadcast, interactive TV, and CD-ROM; also, the educational content, learning services, and delivery solutions that support and enable network-based learning that is either asynchronous or synchronous; instructional content or learning experiences delivered or enabled by electronic technology. Instructional media includes all means of delivering instruction via various delivery mediums including printed material (correspondence courses) and electronic devices such as computers, cable TV, satellite, electronic whiteboards, audio/video tapes, audio and videoconferencing systems, ipods, PDAs, cell phones, etc., using either wireless or wireline technologies. Instructional technology is the theory and practice of design, development, utilization, management, and evaluation of processes and resources for learning. Educational Technology a more broader term but used synonymously with IT. Pedagogy. The activities of educating or instructing or teaching; activities that impart knowledge or skill. Synchronous learning environment supports live (real time), two-way oral and/or visual communications between the instructor and the student. Synchronous media is any type of delivery medium that supports real time communication both ways between the sender and receive. Asynchronous learning environment is when communication between the instructor and the student is not real-time. Asynchronous media is a type of delivery medium that only supports communication between the sender and receive one-way, and does not occur in real time. Behavorialism (behavioral learning theory) is mostly concerned with observable output and does not place any emphasis on the social context of learning. In a behavioral model of instruction the mind is viewed as a “black box” in the sense that response to stimuli can be observed and anything that exists, exists in a certain quantity and can be measured and where conditioning refers to the strengthening of [desired] behavior which results from reinforcement. Through the use of reinforcement in a predominantly individualized system of instruction, behaviorists seek to increase the number or strength of correct student responses. Under most circumstances, behaviorism is an excellent approach for assessing a learners knowledge and comprehension of a particular subject. Cognitive Levels. In 1956, Benjamin Bloom headed a group of educational psychologists who developed a classification of levels of intellectual behavior important in learning. Bloom identified six levels within the cognitive domain, from the simple recall or recognition of facts, as the lowest level, through increasingly more complex and abstract mental levels, to the highest order which is classified as evaluation. The six levels are: knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation. Cognitivism (cognitive learning theory) comes from the perspective that students actively process information and that learning takes place through the efforts of the student as they organize, store, and then find relationships between information, linking old to new knowledge. Cognitive theorists believe that much learning occurs with associations through contiguity and repetition and acknowledges the importance of reinforcement. Cognitive theorists believe that human beings need to acquire and reorganize information into cognitive structures that are understandable. Note: Circa 1960, psychologists began to realize there were many aspects of learning that behavioral theorists could not account for in explaining some of the inconsistencies in learning, so cognitive theory was thrust into the forefront. However, the beginning of cognitive theory can be traced as far back as the 1920’s. Constructivism is a view that emphasizes the active role of the learner in building understanding and making sense of information. Constructivist approaches to learning assume that subjectivity is critical because learners take in information and process it in unique ways that reflect their needs, dispositions, attitudes, beliefs, and feelings. The basic idea of constructivism is that knowledge must be constructed by the learner, it cannot be supplied by the teacher. Glossary Click to go back

69. Media synchronicity theory is primarily focused on groups and proposes that a set of media capabilities are important to group work, and that all tasks are composed of two fundamental communication processes (conveyance and convergence). Communication effectiveness is influenced by matching the media capabilities to the needs of the fundamental communication processes, not aggregate collections of these processes (i.e., tasks) as proposed by media richness theory. The theory postulates it is possible for one medium to possess different levels of a communication capability depending upon how it is configured and used. Media possess many capabilities, each of which may be more or less important in a given situation. The "richest" medium is that which best provides the set of capabilities needed by the situation: the individuals, task, and social context within which they interact (Note: richness applies to the message/content, not the richness of the visual media). Thus, concluding that face-to-face communication is the "richest" media is inappropriate. “ Communication effectiveness is influenced by matching the media capabilities to the needs of the fundamental communication processes, not aggregate collections of these processes as tested in examinations of media richness theory.” Click for Glossary Media Synchronicity Theory* * Source: Alan R. Dennis, Alan R., Valacich, Joseph S., (1999), Rethinking Media Richness: Towards a Theory of Media Synchronicity, Retrieved from: http://csdl2.computer.org/comp/proceedings/hicss/1999/0001/01/00011017.PDF Return to previous page

71. Return to previous page For information on virtual worlds used in the Federal Government: Federal Consortium on Virtual Worlds. Hosted by National Defense University (NDU), Information Resources Management College (IRMC): http://www.ndu.edu/IRMC/fedconsortium.html Virtual worlds are online, computer-generated simulations of simulated environments where users guide their "avatar," or digital representation of their physical selves, to accomplish various goals. Typical virtual world activities include meeting and socializing with other avatars, buying and selling virtual items, playing games, etc. Virtual worlds combine both synchronous capabilities (audio, text chat, whiteboards), as well as asynchronous capabilities (static text, embedded learning modules, learning objects, etc.). Within the context of the evolution of the Internet from Web 1.0 to Web 3.0, Virtual worlds--especially the 3D kinds--are classified under the Web 3.0 category because of their profound ability to integrate multiple types of content, information sources, and feeds into one highly engaging and interactive format.