1. Krashen's Affective Filter hypothesis & Affect in Language Learning

2. Krashen's Theory of Second Language Acquisition consists of five main hypotheses: 'A mental block, caused by affective factors ... that prevents input from reaching the language acquisition device' 5- Affective Filter Hypothesis: 'Humans acquire language in only one way - by understanding messages or by receiving "comprehensible input"' (comprehensible input = data we hear around us; if we are relaxed, it goes directly to our heads) 4- Input Hypothesis: 'Conscious learning ... can only be used as a Monitor or an editor' (those who use the monitor a lot are slow learners => too conscious of what they say) 3- Monitor Hypothesis: 'Adults have two distinctive ways of developing competences in second languages .. acquisition, that is by using language for real communication (natural environment) ... learning .. "knowing about" language' 2- Acquisition/ Learning Hypothesis: 'We acquire the rules of language in a predictable order' 1- Natural order hypothesis:

3. In this presentation, we are only interested in the fifth hypothesis -- The Affective Filter Hypothesis-- which stipulates that a number of 'affective variables' play a facilitative , but non-causal, role in second language acquisition. These variables include: motivation, self-confidence and anxiety . Krashen claims that learners with high motivation, self-confidence, a good self-image, and a low level of anxiety are better equipped for success in second language acquisition. Low motivation, low self-esteem, and debilitating anxiety can combine to ' raise ' the affective filter and form a 'mental block' that prevents comprehensible input from being used for acquisition. In other words, when the filter is 'up' it impedes language acquisition. (Krashen, 1985) What we conclude then is that Affect plays a very important role in second language acquisition. It needs to be taken into consideration by L2 teachers so they make sure that the students' affective filter is low at all times in order for learning to take place. Since this presentation is only related to Motivation, it will not cover the two other variables: self-confidence and anxiety. Before we start by defining motivation, mentioning its sources and different theories/models and their implications, we believe it is worth asking one question that seems to guide all theorists' and researchers' work: "Why do people learn a second or foreign language? In other words, what is their Goal?

4. 1- Why Do People Learn a Second/Foreign Language? This seems to be the key question in all kinds of research! And of course, the reasons vary from a person to another.

8. 3- Good L2 Learners Research has shown that the use of specific learning strategies & techniques while studying a second or foreign language leads to success. "The conscious, tailored use of such strategies is related to language achievement and proficiency. (Oxford, 1994) Some of those strategies: Rubin (1975) suggested that good L2 learners  are willing and accurate guessers;  have a strong drive to communicate;  are often uninhibited, and if they are, they combat inhibition by using positive self-talk, by extensive use of practicing in private, and by putting themselves in situations where they have to participate communicatively.  are willing to make mistakes;  focus on form by looking for patterns and analyzing;  take advantage of all practice opportunities;  monitor their speech as well as that of others;  and pay attention to meaning. One of the factors that influence the choice of strategies used among students learning a second/foreign language is Motivation. More motivated students tend to use more strategies than less motivated students, hence, they tend to be more successful. (Oxford, 1990a)

9. . Patience, persistence and perspiration make an unbeatable combination for success. --Napolean Hill -- MOTIVATION  *Energy  *Active involvement  *Persistence  *Goal  *Effort  *Desire

11. Note: Conation = inclination to act purposefully; impulse. (Webster's) "It is an intrinsic 'unrest' of the organism, almost the opposite of homeostasis. A conscious tendency to act... a conscious striving." (English & English, 1958)

13. Note: Vicarious learning = the acquisition of knowledge or ability through indirect experience and observation, rather than direct experience or practice. (Harcourt Academic Press Dictionary of Science and Technology) The following chart provides a brief overview of the different sources of motivation that have been studied. While INITIATION of action can be traced to each of these domains, it appears likely that PERSISTENCE may be more related to emotions and/or the affective area (optimism vs. pessimism; self- esteem; etc.) or to conation and goal-orientation .

17. B- Cognitive Theories Expectancy-value/VIE theory: (Vroom, 1964) it proposes the following equation: Motivation = Perceived Probability of Success (Expectancy) Connection of Success and Reward-- material benefit (Instrumentality) Value of Obtaining Goal (Valence, Value) (VIE = Valence, Instrumentality, Expectancy) . Since this formula states that the three factors of Expectancy, Instrumentality, and Valence or Value are to be multiplied by each other, a low value in one will result in a low value of motivation. Therefore, all three must be present in order for motivation to occur. That is, if an individual doesn't believe he or she can be successful at a task OR the individual does not s ee a connection between his or her activity and success OR the individual does not value the results of success , then the probability is lowered that the individual will engage in the required learning activity. From the perspective of this theory, all three variables must be high in order for motivation and the resulting behavior to be high. => An individual will act in a certain way based on the expectation that the act will be followed by a given outcome and on the attractiveness of that outcome to the individual. Attribution theory: (Heider, 1958; Weiner, 1974). This theory proposes that every individual tries to explain success or failure of self and others by offering certain "attributions." These attributions are either internal or external and are either under control or not under control. The following chart shows the four attributions that result from a combination of internal or external locus of control and whether or not control is possible.

18. In a teaching/learning environment, it is important to assist the learner to develop a self-attribution explanation of effort (internal, control). If the person has an attribution of ability (internal, no control) as soon as the individual experiences some difficulties in the learning process, he or she will decrease appropriate learning behavior. If the person has an external attribution, then nothing the person can do will help that individual in a learning situation (i.e., responsibility for demonstrating what has been learned is completely outside the person). In this case, there is nothing to be done by the individual when learning problems occur. Task Difficulty Effort Control Luck Ability No Control External Internal

19. Cognitive dissonance theory: it was developed by Leon Festinger (1957) and states that when there is a discrepancy between two beliefs, two actions, or between a belief and an action, we will act to resolve conflict and discrepancies . The implication is that if we can create the appropriate amount of disequilibrium, this will in turn lead to the individual changing his or her behavior which in turn will lead to a change in thought patterns which in turn leads to more change in behavior. According to the Webster's, cognitive dissonance is a psychological conflict resulting from incongruous beliefs and attitudes held simultaneously. Weiner (1990) points out that behavioral theories tend to focus on extrinsic motivation (i.e., rewards) while cognitive theories deal with intrinsic motivation (i.e., goals). Cognitivists explain motivation in terms of a person's active search for meaning and satisfaction in life. Thus, motivation is internal.

21. <=> According to this model, fulfillment of the previous stage is necessary for advancement to the next stage. In order for the child to be motivated, parents and teachers need to challenge his/her abilities, but NOT present material or information that is too far beyond the child's level. It is also recommended that teachers use a wide variety of concrete experiences to motivate the child (e.g., use of manipulatives, working in groups to get experience seeing from another's perspective, field trips, etc).

24. In the context of school learning, which involves operating in a relatively structured environment, students with mastery goals outperform students with either performance or social goals. However, in life success, it seems critical that individuals have all three types of goals in order to be very successful. One aspect of this theory is that individuals are motivated to either avoid failure (more often associated with performance goals) or achieve success (more often associated with mastery goals). In the former situation, the individual is more likely to select easy or difficult tasks, thereby either achieving success or having a good excuse for why failure occurred. In the latter situation, the individual is more likely to select moderately difficult tasks which will provide an interesting challenge, but still keep the high expectations for success.

31. Maslow recognized that not all personalities followed his proposed hierarchy. While a variety of personality dimensions might be considered as related to motivational needs, one of the most often cited is that of introversion and extroversion . Reorganizing Maslow's hierarchy based on the work of Alderfer and considering the introversion/extroversion dimension of personality results in three levels, each with an introverted and extroverted component. This organization suggests there may be two aspects of each level that differentiate how people relate to each set of needs. Different personalities might relate more to one dimension than the other. For example, an introvert at the level of Other/Relatedness might be more concerned with his or her own perceptions of being included in a group, whereas an extrovert at that same level would pay more attention to how others value that membership.

32. A Reorganization of Maslow's and Alderfer's Hierarchies . Connectedness, security Physiological, biological (including basic emotional needs) Self (Existence) Value of person by group (Esteem) Personal identification with group, significant others (Belongingness) Other (Relatedness) Transcendence (assisting in the development of others' competencies and character; relationships to the unknown, unknowable) Self-Actualization (development of competencies [knowledge, attitudes, and skills] and character) Growth Extroversion Introversion Level

35. Deci identifies autonomy, competence, and relatedness as the three criteria necessary for the self-determination theory of motivation. .

36. Fill the Heart, not just the Money Bag.

37. Edward L. Deci Humanists stress the need for personal growth. They place a great deal of emphasis on the total person, along with the related news of personal freedom, choice and self determination.

39. 1- Freud / 1990 2- Erikson, 1993 / Sullivan, 1968 3- Adler / 1989 4- Jung / 1953, 1997 1- Life & Death 2- Social/interpersonal relationships 3- Power 4- Search for soul E- Psychoanalytic 1- 2- 3- Atkinson & Raynor / 1974 4- Locke & Latham / 1994 1- Need for achievement 2- Fear of failure 3- Fear of success 4- Goal theory:  Mastery goals  Performance goals  Social goals D- Achievement Motivation Theories 1- Piaget / 1972, 1990 2- Vygotsky / 1978 1- Stages of cognitive development. 2- Zone of proximal development C- Cognitive Developmental Theories 1- Expectancy of success + Instrumentality (see the connection between activity & reward) + Value the results. 2- Attribute success/failure to factors that are: internal/external/under control/out of control 3- Act to resolve conflict or discrepancies. 1- Vroom / 1964 2- Heider, 1958 / Weiner, 1974 3- Festinger / 1957 1- Expectancy-value 2- Attribution theory 3- Cognitive dissonance B- Cognitive Theories => intrinsic motivation Cognitivists explain motivation in terms of person's active search for meaning and satisfaction in life. Thus motivation is internal. 1- Stimulus, response, association (involuntary) 2- Stimulus, response, reward = reinforcement 3- Modeling ( imitation ) + Vicarious learning 1- Pavlov 2- Skinner 3- Bandura 1- Classical conditioning 2- Operant conditioning 3- Observational/social learning A- Behavioral Theories => extrinsic motivation Behaviorists explain motivation in terms of external stimuli and reinforcement. The physical environment and actions of the teacher are of prime importance. Components Theorist/Year Theory Name Theories of Motivation Summary

40. 1- Judging one's own ability 2- Establishing goals and developing a plan to attain those goals. 1- 2- Bandura / 1986, 1997 1- Self-efficacy 2- Self-regulation G- Social Cognition 1- Self-actualization, esteem, belongingness, safety, physiological. We are not motivated by any higher-level needs until our lower-level ones have been satisfied. 2- Growth, relatedness, existence needs. Alderfer showed how people regress if their higher order needs are not met. 3- Intrinsic Vs. Extrinsic motivation- A person must be able to initiate and regulate, through personal choice, the effort expended to complete a task in order for the task to be intrinsically rewarding. 1- Maslow / 1954 2- Alderfer, 1972 3- Deci & Ryan, 1985 1- Hierarchy of Needs 2- Hierarchy of Motivational Needs 3- Self-determination F- Humanistic Theories Humanists stress the need for personal growth. They place a great deal of emphasis on the total person, along with the related news of personal freedom, choice and self-determination.

41. 7- Models of Motivation A- Gardner & Lambert (1959, 1972): Socio-Educational Model After conducting a study that lasted more than ten years, they concluded that the learner's attitude toward the target language and the culture of the target-language-speaking community play a crucial role in language learning motivation. They introduced the notions of instrumental and integrative motivation. In the context of language learning, instrumental motivation refers to the learner's desire to learn a language for utilitarian purposes (such as school/university requirement, employment or travel), whereas integrative motivation refers to the desire to learn a language to integrate successfully into the target language community. McDonough (1981)noted that there are two types of integrative motivation: “ Assimilative motivation ”, strong motivation to “belong” to the target group (give up one's own culture to assimilate into the target culture), and “ Affiliative motivation ”, weak motivation and a desire for wider social contact with target language speakers. Researchers challenged the social psychological approach claiming that it does not include the cognitive aspects of learning motivation (Oxford & Shearin, 1994; Dornyei, 1994), it is not practical and does not benefit L2 learning since it is too broad to help L2 educators generate practical guidelines (Dornyei, 1990).

47. Structure of Motivation Mentioned in &quot;Tapestry of Language Learning&quot; p. 52 External / Behavioral factors 1- Decision to choose, pay attention to, and engage in L2 learning. 2- Persistence 3- High activity level Internal / Attitudinal factors 1- Interest in L2 (based on attitudes, experience, background knowledge) 2- Relevance (perception that personal needs --achievement, affiliation, power-- are being met by learning the L2. 3- Expectancy of success or failure. 4- Outcomes (extrinsic or intrinsic rewards felt by the learner.) .

52. Models of Motivation Summary Instrumental Motivational Integrative Motivational Need for Achievement Attribution about past failures. Motivational construct F- Dornyei (1990) Intrinsic & Extrinsic motivation Self-Determination (autonomy) Theory E- Deci & Ryan (1985) (a) reason for learning, (b) desire to attain the learning goal, (c) positive attitude toward the learning situation, and (d) effortful behavior. Four other motivational orientations D- Gardner (1985) Assimilation: total adoption Rejection of target culture Acculturation: learning to function in the new culture while maintaining one's own identity. Acculturation Model (for adults) C- Schumann (1978/1986) Effort Valence Expectancy Ability Instrumentality Expectancy Value Theories: B- Vroom (1964) Instrumental and Integrative motivation + Assimilative & Affiliative Socio-Educational Model A- Gardner/Lambert (1959/1972) Components Model Name Theorist/Year

53. 1. affective/integrative 2. instrumental/pragmatic 3. macro-context-related 4. self-concept-related 5. goal-related 6. educational context-related 7. significant others-related Seven main motivational dimensions K- Dornyei (1998) Motivation of instrumentality Intrinsic motivation Expected learning strategies and efforts Passivity towards requirements. Incorporated expectancy-value theories J- Wen (1997) Language Level, Learner Level, and Learning Situation Level. Taxonomy of motivation I- Dornyei (1994) Attitudes Beliefs about self Goals Involvement Environmental support Personal attributes Six factors that impact motivation in language learning H- Oxford & Shearin (1994) 1- Micro level, Classroom level, Syllabus level, and Outside the classroom level. 2- Internal factors (interest, relevance, expectancy, outcomes) & External factors (decision, persistence, activity level) 1- Four areas of SL motivation 2- Structure of Motivation G- Crookes & Schmidt (1991)

54. 8- Factors that Affect Motivation . &quot;Motivation to learn is a competence acquired through general experience but stimulated most directly through modeling , communication of expectations , and direct instruction or socialization by significant others (especially parents and teachers).&quot; (Brophy, 1987) &quot;To a very large degree, students expect to learn if their teachers expect them to learn.&quot; (Stipek, 1988) Several factors affect students' motivation to learn a second language. . . First foreign language The more academically sophisticated the student's native language knowledge and abilities, the easier it will be for that student to learn a second language, then the more motivated s/he will be. Native language proficiency Judging own ability and competence. How capable of success they think they are. Self-efficacy / Competence How much the learner expects to succeed. Expectancy How the learner views this language and its speakers. Attitude How interested the learner is in learning this language. Interest (and curiosity) How much the learner needs to study this language. Need Why the learner is studying the language. Goals . Religion Girls are known to acquire languages faster than boys. Hence, their motivation would be higher. Gender cf. Piaget, Maslow, Alderfer, Erikson, Vygotsky, ... Age Internal Factors

55. Students need to have positive and realistic role models who demonstrate the value of being proficient in more than one language. Role models Teenagers tend to be heavily influenced by their peer groups. In second language learning, peer pressure often undermines the goals set by parents and teachers. Peer pressure often reduces the desire of the student to work toward native pronunciation, because the sounds of the target language may be regarded as strange. For learners of English as a second language, speaking like a native speaker may unconsciously be regarded as a sign of no longer belonging to their native-language peer group. In working with secondary school students, it is important to keep these peer influences in mind and to foster a positive image for proficiency in a second language. Social Identity (Peer groups)  Relevance  Attractiveness  Challenge  Relaxed, positive atmosphere (low affective filter) Course content & Classroom atmosphere Encouragement · Expectations · Feedback · Scaffolding · Task presentation · Teaching strategies & techniques · Rewards Teachers External Factors

56. In order for the students to be motivated, the learning environment needs to be free from axiety; the student should not feel threatened or intimidated. In order for him/her to speak, s/he needs to feel s/he will be heard and that what s/he is saying is worth hearing. Learning environment Support from home is very important for students' motivation to learn a second language. If parents value both the native language and English, communicate with their children in whichever language is most comfortable, and show support for and interest in their children's progress, the children will definitely be more motivated to learn the second language. Home support

57. 9- Instruments for Motivation Assessment: The &quot;Attitude/Motivation Test Battery (AMTB)- Gardner, 1985 Motivational intensity questionnaire (Gardner, 1985) To measure intensity of motivation. The Instructional Materials Motivation Survey (IMMS) (Keller, 1987). It requires students to rate 36 ARCS-related statements in relation to the instructional materials they have just used. Strategy Inventory for Language Learning (SILL) (Oxford, 1989) To measure language learning strategies. Motivational Delivery Checklist (Keller and Keller, 1989) A 47-item ARCS-based instrument for evaluating the motivational characteristics of an instructor's classroom delivery. Motivational element questionnaire (Schmidt et al., 1996) To measure intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. Motivation Scale (Wen, 1997) The Website Motivational Analysis Checklist (WebMAC) (Small, 1997) It is an instrument used for designing and assessing the motivational quality of World Wide Web sites.

61. for the complexities of real-world tasks that require them to use language skills and knowledge that have to be continually transferred. &quot;The best way to create interest in a subject is to render it worth knowing, which means to make the knowledge gained usable in one's thinking beyond the situation in which learning has occurred.&quot; Bruner (1960, p.31) Some effective suggestions for improving the affective climate of the SL learning environment: By Paula Kristmanson

63. Students: Walking your talk is a great way to motivate yourself. No one likes to live a lie. Be honest with yourself, and you will find the motivation to do what you advise others to do. --Vince Poscente (Invinceable Principles) YOU CAN BE WHATEVER YOU WANT TO BE by Donna Levine There is inside you all of the potential to be whatever you want to be all of the energy to do whatever you want to do. Imagine yourself as you would like to be, doing what you want to do, and each day, take one step towards your dream. And though at times it may seem too difficult to continue, hold on to your dream. One morning you will awake to find that you are the person you dreamed of doing what you wanted to do simply because you had the courage to believe in your potential and to hold on to your dream. http://www.wow4u.com/youcan/index.html Additional sites: Keys to Motivation http://www.motivation123.com/keys.html Techniques to Help You Get Motivated Today http://www.motivation123.com/motiv-fortuneteller.html

64. Get Up and Go - Motivation http://www.study.com.au/magic/skills/motivate.html Motivation is the force that causes you to take action - apply the effort & commitment needed to do something. There are two important parts to motivation: People tend to be most successful when working toward positive outcomes on things they find personally fulfilling. In such cases they will do whatever it takes to get the result that they want. One of the most important tasks is to decide what you want . . . If you don't plan where you are heading, you might end up in an occupation or life style that is not very satisfying. If you haven't decided yet, identify a range of wishes for the future, and set about exploring the background of people who have achieved that lifestyle. Mapping out a plan to achieve your dreams is often called writing up a list of goals. Click here ( http://www.study.com.au/ideal/idpdf/studentp/goal_sample_page.pdf ) for an example. To gain benefits OR avoid unpleasantness What are you doing it for? For myself OR others (parents or teachers) Who are you doing it for?

65. Make a Treasure Map of your Goals: Make a map of the things that you wish to achieve during your life. Start by listing the key areas, then adding more detail. You will notice that each time you return to your map your vision for the future will become clearer. Use words, drawings or pictures from magazines. Start with a picture of yourself. A good strategy is to make a poster size collage for your bedroom wall to help you focus on your goals each day.) Whatever you call your preferred future direction, write it down, draw it, paint it, make a collage of your direction and work toward it. If you can find something better, simply adjust you goals and direction. Remember to link your goals to your school work. To create greater motivation for your school work take time to find as many positive connections between the subjects you are doing and possible benefits for achieving your goals.

68. Searching for motivation Just as you can ‘lose’ motivation, you can also ‘find’ motivation. The connecting link between losing motivation and finding it, is the search. The search will involve some focusing on how important the goal is that you are seeking, and some change to your behavior. It is likely to involve a number of steps. Give yourself some quality time to work through the steps in this program . Eight step plan to help you search for, and find motivation. The eight step plan for finding motivation to study can be shown as: Step 1 Give yourself time Step 2 Work with all of you Step 3 Focus on goals Step 4 Make study a priority Step 5 Feel good about yourself Step 6 Take care of your health Step 7 Visualization Step 8 Build on your knowledge

69. 1- Give yourself time You probably have not lost motivation overnight. You will need to give yourself time to find it again. Lost objects are most easily found when you: · are calm · have some time to search · are able to concentrate on one thing at a time How can you begin to relax, give yourself time and concentrate on one thing at a time? 2- Work with the whole you Keep in mind that loss of motivation is an experience which can affect your thoughts, your feelings and your body. · You might be feeling anxious or guilty. · You might be thinking that you will never be able to complete your work on time. · You might be finding it difficult to get your body physically moving in the morning. Ask yourself the following questions, and list your answers in a copy of the Table &quot;How am I?&quot; · What am I feeling? · What am I thinking? · What is my physical state of health? · What are my goals about how I want my feelings, thoughts and health to be ?

71. If · study has been omitted from your list of goals or · is a low priority or · is not achievable, then you are experiencing loss of motivation to study. There may be many aspects of your life that are important to you other than study. You may, for example, · have family commitments, · want to have paid employment, · you may want to travel overseas. Any of these may be more important goals for you than study. If you have a large number of goals, or study is a low priority for you, you may choose to · make an appointment with a counselor, · talk with a friend or · see a teacher about what is happening for you in relation to study and how you can decide which goals to make priorities. Next Step: You can either · talk with a friend about your priorities or, · make an appointment to see a teacher or · make an appointment to see a counselor or

74. yourself completing your work and handing it up. You can use the Visualization exercise for students to begin. If you can picture positive situations in your head then you have an image, or a visualization, which you can use daily before or during study to visualize yourself being motivated and successful. You might want to learn more about meditation which includes practicing visualization. 8- Build on your knowledge You have now undertaken seven steps to help you in your search for motivation. Step 2 included the examination of your thoughts, feelings and your health. Step 8 will involve you in monitoring how you are, and using what you have discovered to help you in your search for motivation. You will need to use your list of answers from Step 2 as a base line to discover how undertaking the seven steps has helped you in your search for motivation. At weekly intervals, you can use the Keeping up the search for motivation checklist The checklist will help you build on your knowledge about yourself in searching for, and maintaining, your motivation to study. http://www.unisanet.unisa.edu.au/motivation/