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RESEARCH ON LEARNING FROM TELEVISION                                      reviews of the literature are helpful for synthesizing findings. Individual studies
                                                                                      contribute a point of view and define variables, but it takes a review to examine
                                 Barbara Seels                                        each study in light of others. Fortunately, there have been many outstanding
                             University of Pittsburgh                                 reviews of the literature. For example, Reid and MacLennan (1967) and Chu and
                                Karen Fullerton                                       Schramm (1968) did comprehensive reviews of learning from television that
                                                                                      included studies on utilization. Aletha Huston-Stein (1972) wrote a chapter for
                               Celeron Consultants
                                                                                      the National Society for the Study of Education (NSSE) yearbook on Early
                                  Louis Berry                                         Childhood Education entitled Mass Media and Young Children‟s Development
                             University of Pittsburgh                                 which presented a conceptual framework for studying television‟s effects. In
                                                                                      1975, the Rand Corporation published three books by George Comstock that
                                  Laura J. Horn                                       reviewed pertinent scientific literature, key studies, and the state of research.
                                                                                      Jerome and Dorothy Singer reviewed the implications of research for children‟s
    12.1.1 Relevance to Instructional Technology
                                                                                      cognition, imagination, and emotion (Singer & Singer, 1983). In that article, they
     Research on learning from television encompasses more than formal                described the trend toward studying cognitive processes and formal features. By
instruction. This body of research addresses learning in home as well as school       1989, the American Psychological Association had produced a synthesis of the
environments. Many of the findings are relevant to the instructional technologist;    literature tided Big World, Small Screen.
for example, research on formal features* yields guidelines for message design.
                                                                                           Other reviews have concentrated on special areas like reading skills
Instructional technologists can both promote students‟ learning to regulate and
                                                                                      (Williams, 1986); cognitive development (Anderson & Collins, 1988);
reinforce their own viewing* and educate parents and teachers about media
                                                                                      instructional television (Cambre, 1987); and violence (Liebert & Sprafkin, 1988).
utilization.
                                                                                      Lawrence Erlbaum Publishers offers a series of volumes edited by Dolf Zillmann
     In addition, instructional technologists are also responsible for                and Jennings Bryant on research and theory about television effects. Light and
recommending and supporting policy that affects television utilization. The           Pillemer (1984) argue against the single decisive study approach and propose
literature provides support for policy positions related to (a) control of            reviews around a specific research question that starts by reporting the main
advertising and violence, (b) parent and teacher training, (c) provision of special   effects, then reports special circumstances that affect outcomes, and finishes by
programming, and (d) media literacy education.                                        reporting special effects on particular types of people. This integrated research
                                                                                      strategy is especially appropriate for reviews of research on television effects.
    Researchers in instructional technology can determine gaps in the theoretical
base by using reviews such as this. In the future, more research that relates             12.3.6 Current Issues
variables studied by psychologists to variables studied by educators will be
                                                                                          Contemporary research in the cognitive effects of the television medium has
required in order to identify guidelines for interventions and programming.
                                                                                      generally continued along the same agendas as in previous decades. Additional
    12.2.1.2 Review Articles and Books                                                research into the nature of the television viewing act has further confirmed the
                                                                                      active theoretical approach. Recent researchers have explored the role of the
    Despite such long-term efforts, much of the literature on television lacks        auditory message and reported findings that demonstrate the power of audio cues
connection to other findings (Clark, 1983, 1994; Richey, 1986). The conceptual        in helping children identify critical information in the visual track which direct
theory necessary to explain the relationship among variables is still evolving.       their attention to comprehensible program content. Research has shown that the
Because of this, consumers of the literature are sometimes overwhelmed and            relationship between attention and comprehension, previously identified, is a
unable to make decisions related to interactions in the television viewing system     complex and interactive process which relies on both visual and auditory
of programming, environment, and behavior. Comprehensive and specialized              information as well as prior knowledge of content (Bickham, Wright, & Huston,
2000). Researchers have also addressed the variable of comprehension in recent        their self-efficacy may translate to a stronger sense of their role as a civic
research. Studies by Clifford, Gunter, and McAleer (1995) found that children         participant.
demonstrate different information processing and conceptualizing abilities than
                                                                                                        To watch or not to watch? That is the question.
do older individuals, and they caution that much of this area has received little
                                                                                       Identifying the common characteristics of the reality television viewing audience.
research attention. Further work by Kelly and Spear (1991) indicated that
comprehension could be improved by the addition of viewing aids such as                                              Presented to the Faculty
synopses, which are placed at strategic points in the program. Research involving                                      Liberty University
the use of closed captioning for deaf students demonstrated the critical nature of                                  School of Communication
the audio track in facilitating comprehension of television program content as
                                                                                                         In Partial Fulfilment of the Requirements for the
well as the beneficial effects of such captioning for all students ( Jelinek- Lewis
                                                                                                                           Master of Arts
& Jackson, 2001).                                                                                                    In Communication Studies
                                TCC 2011 Proceedings                                                                           By
                                                                                                                         Laura M. Sipple
                   The Effect of Reality TV on Civic Behaviors
                                                                                                                           May 1, 2008
                                Fanning Elizabeth
                              University of Virginia                                      CHAPTER 2 – LITERATURE REVIEW Reality Show Viewers
                             Charlottesville, VA, USA
                                  tsadi@aol.com                                           Why are so many people tuning in to view these programs and who are the
                                                                                      people that continue to watch each season? While research relating to reality
    Related Theory and Studies                                                        television is relatively new, several studies have been conducted in relation to
                                                                                      viewer characteristics, media effects, realism and gratifications. However, due to
    Social Learning Theory                                                            the popularity of fictional crime, detective dramas and police work, most of the
     Social learning is a behavioral modelling technique that uses the context of a   earliest research relied heavily on these types of series including shows such as
social group or setting and the resulting group dynamics to teach social,             COPS and America‟s Most Wanted. (Oliver & Armstrong, 1; Andrejevic).
emotional, and practical competencies (Bandura, 1969, 1977). This group                   Previous research has briefly explored why viewers watch certain programs
dynamic encourages a similar reflexive quality in self-perception, and contributes    but has been limited in their sampling sizes or program selections. In Oliver and
to the learner‟s sense of self-efficacy (Ibid, 1997). This developing self-efficacy   Armstrong‟s study, the data focused primarily on crime shows (COPS and
bolsters the learner‟s confidence and willingness to further explore and engage in    America‟s Most Wanted) and did not consider other types of reality programs for
certain behaviors (Ibid), and to choose activities or behaviors in which the
                                                                                      their study. Random telephone surveys were conducted in Wisconsin and
learners feels they will be successful (Ormond, 1999).                                Virginia in areas centered on large universities and only adults who were not full-
     Online social networks are rich with opportunities for social learning, with     time students participated. Researchers sought to identify why viewers enjoyed
the group dynamics of the discussion boards and blog postings driving and             watching reality-based, fictional crime programs. (561)
setting the terms for acceptable attitudes and behaviors, along with participant          Reiss & Wiltz‟s study utilized a questionnaire format and chose human
ratings providing immediate feedback. Similarly, if through participating in the      service workers and college students as participants. Five specific reality shows
social networks surrounding the television show American Idol, people learn that      were noted on the questionnaire and included Survivor, Big Brother, Temptation
they can change the outcome of an episode through their opinions and voting,          Island, The Mole, and The Real World. Researchers chose these five shows
                                                                                      based on the “low level of morals found on the shows and the exploitation of the
participants as well as their appeal to a viewer‟s basic human quest for truth and    as these arose, a shift in research was directed to what viewers do with media,
need for genuineness.” (370) Again, only a limited number of reality shows were       rather than what media does to people. (Klapper 27).
addressed in this study and two groups of participants were selected.
                                                                                          According to a recent article in the Journal of Consumer Research, “Reality
    In the study conducted by Nabi, Biely, Morgan and Stitt, only Arizona             TV allows viewers to imagine themselves as actual participants.” (Rose & Wood)
residents who were awaiting jury duty participated in the study. And most             The authors continue their discussion by assessing that viewer‟s blend fact with
recently, a study conducted in 2006 by Alice Hall addressed the audience‟s            fantasy, a term they have coined “hyper-authenticity.” In these cases, viewers
understanding of the “nature, realism and gratifications” of reality show             compare and contrast their lives to the participant's lives depicted onscreen.
programs. (191) the study participants included college students at an urban
Midwestern university, with an average age of twenty three. Here again, the               Other research has shown viewers may have a voyeuristic nature (Johnson
participants chosen were limited. While the results of these studies are useful to    56). However, this is a claim that Nabi, Biely, Morgan and Stitt refutes.
further understand the nature of audiences, more diversity among participants         According to their study, voyeurism was not evident in the data. “Viewers
could have produced results that may be applied more universally in the field.        wanted to watch other people, but did not see something the characters didn‟t
                                                                                      want them to see.” (324) In this study, regular television programs as well as
    Some research, including work conducted by Katz, Blumer & Gurevitch,              seven specific reality-based programs -- Survivor, Real World, A Wedding Story,
takes a psychological perspective and utilizes the uses and gratification theory.     Temptation Island, The Mole, Blind Date and COPS -- represented a variety of
According to this theory, the audience is active and media is goal-directed. The      sub-categories of the reality show genre. The results indicated that regular
audience has specific expectations and these expectations motivate their choice       viewers note that reality television programs are “novel,” “suspenseful” and
of media. Media is in competition with other sources for satisfaction and             viewers enjoy their “unscripted nature” and “watch because they are entertained”
individuals are aware of these needs and audience media selections and                whereas casual viewers watch out of “curiosity and entertainment.” (320). In
subsequent gratifications are known and able to be effectively communicated.          addition, very few differences were found among participants in regard to race,
(Grossberg, Wartella & Whitney 266-267)                                               sex or age.

    This approach has been taken by Nabi, Biely, Morgan and Stitt in the study            Reiss and Wiltz concurred with Nabi, Biely, Morgan and Stitt and took the
of reality television -“what it is, how it differs from other types of programs and   research a step further to locate unique motivations for each individual. Their
who watches it and why.” (324) specifically, the study focused on the following       study was based on Reiss‟ theory of human behavior, more specifically “16 basic
gratifications identified by Katz, Blumler, & Gurevitch: “diversion,” “personal       desires.” Based on Aristotle‟s means and ends, and a variation of the “uses and
relationships,” “personal identity” and “surveillance.” (312) Results indicated       gratification” approach, Reiss expands the theory to include 16 fundamental
that the gratification for regular viewers exceeded those of casual viewers and       meanings of human life and suggests all goals in life can be categorized into one
regular viewers needed to be entertained versus casual viewers who watched in         of the following categories: “power, curiosity, independence, status, social
hopes of “alleviating boredom.” (325).                                                contact, vengeance, honor, idealism, physical exercise, romance, family, order,
                                                                                      eating, acceptance, tranquillity and saving.”
    While this theory has been accepted, cited repeatedly and has propelled other
theories, it has been criticized by other scholars. (O‟Guinn & Faber). Criticisms         According to Reiss and Wiltz, “if we could identify the most basic or
included the lack of clarity, the nature of the audience, and reliance on the data,   fundamental motives of human life, we may be able to connect these motives to
specifically, reliance on self-reports. (Anderson &Meyer; Swanson; Sparks) In         desires to pay attention to various media experiences.” (364) Their results
response to these criticisms, R.B. Rubin identified the following six reasons why     showed that status was the main motivational factor in determining what program
children watched television: learning, habit, companionship, escape, arousal and      to watch. “The more status-oriented people are, the more likely they are to view
relaxation. This aided in addressing the problem of applying the research to other    reality television and report pleasure and enjoyment.” (373) They also found that
areas (lack of clarity), and helped to address data validity. When questions such     particular shows may appeal to different psychological needs. For example,
Survivor may appeal to those who are more competitive in nature, thus filling the      we cannot, or have not yet had the chance to, experience in person; trying on
need for vengeance. (374).                                                             alternative identities; or otherwise adopting the goals, feelings, or thoughts
                                                                                       imagined to be those of the target of our identification. Whether this vicarious
    Other studies focus on the personal connections that a viewer can potentially      experience results in overt behavior or takes on a more purely imaginative form,
make with a specific person being portrayed on television shows, not on the            it is this vicarious experience that makes identification central.” (249).
reasons or motivations they may receive for watching a specific program. This
approach to the study of television audiences addresses the process known as               In an attempt to measure identification, Cohen has developed the following
identification.                                                                        four dimensions of identification: “(1) empathy or sharing the feelings of the
                                                                                       character, (2) a cognitive aspect that is manifest in sharing the perspective of the
    While no studies specifically mentioned the use of identification as an            character, (3) motivational -- addresses the degree to which the audience member
audience response to reality programs in the United States, studies linking the        internalizes and shares the goals of the character and (4) the absorption or the
process of identification between audiences and television programs exist. Rubin       degree to which self-awareness is lost during exposure to the text.” (256)
R.B. & McHugh (290) saw that the longer an audience member is exposed to a
character, the more likely they are able to imagine themselves as that character.          Hussmann, Lagerspetz & Eron, discovered that children who identified with
                                                                                       aggressive television characters increased their learning of aggressive behavior.
    Some scholars contend that identification can occur after the viewing has          Many studies have been conducted to evaluate an audience‟s identification with
taken place. Resengren noted that “equally or even more important are those            television characters (Chory-Assad Cicchirillo 154), fictional characters (Hoorn
relationships which extend beyond the moment of viewing ... „long term                 & Konijn 255), and national identity (Creeber 31) however, only one study
identification‟ with one or more of the personae of the media world.” (349)            specifically addressed the process of identification in relation to reality television
                                                                                       programs (Aslama & Pantti 52); and this was a study conducted in Finland.
    Early studies conducted on identification took on a psychological approach
and focused on a child‟s need for identification and how it related to the             Results indicated that the construction of national identity was intentional on the
formation of one‟s social identity (Freud; Erikson).                                   part of the producers and that some details, perhaps unintentional, also
                                                                                       contributed to the formation of national identity.
    Kenneth Burke took the process a few steps further conducting extensive
                                                                                          REALITY TV AND INTERPERSONAL RELATIONSHIP PERCEPTIONS
research on the subject of identification and believed that the process of
identification occurs when “one individual shares the interests of another                A Dissertation presented to the Faculty of the Graduate School at the University of
individual or believes that he or she shares the interest of another.” (Burke 180).                                       Missouri Columbia
Herbert Kelman accepted Burke‟s research but added the process of persuasion
and included that in identification as well. He claims that an individual goes              In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy
through a three-stage process of identification: 1) compliance, 2) identification,                                   By KRISTIN L. CHERRY
and 3) internalization. During this three-stage process, identification can take on                     Dr. Jennifer Stevens Aubrey, Dissertation Supervisor
one of two forms. The first form can be “classical - attempts to be like or actually                                         MAY 2008
be the other person” (Kelman 63). Secondly, Kelman says the individual may
take the “recipricol role of identification - the roles of two parties are defined         Literature Review Reality Television Research
with reference to one another.” (64).
                                                                                           Reality television programming has been around since the first broadcast of
    Cohen has defined identification as “an imaginative process through which          Candid Camera in the late 1940‟s. It has not been until recently that these types
an audience member assumes the identity, goals, and perspective of a character”        of shows have gained immense popularity. The debut of Survivor in 2000 has
(Cohen 261). He continues by discussing an individual taking on a vicarious            been credited with beginning the infiltration of reality programming in the
experience. “Vicarious experience may take various forms: experiencing things          current television landscape
(Rowen, 2000). Individuals are embracing this genre of television                  within this genre. They include: romantic, talent, quiz, and game (Bailey &
programming as a relatively permanent fixture in television programming. In            Barbato, 2003). In this study, I will examine not only reality television viewing
2003 the Academy of Television Arts and Sciences added "Best Reality Show"             as a whole, but also exposure to subgenres of reality television.
as an Emmy category (Rowen, 2000). This has led to the development of many
types of reality programming formats. While the research in this area is relatively         Some research has sought to discover why people watch reality television.
limited despite the recent surge in reality programming, in what follows I aim to      Reiss and Wiltz (2004) asked individuals to rate themselves on Reiss's 16 basic
summarize previous research in this area.                                              life motives and also to report how much they viewed reality programs and how
                                                                                       much they enjoyed these shows. Results indicated that the appeal to reality
    The increase in reality programming is undoubtedly related to with the             television programs was dependent on the amount of reality television watched.
increasing number of cable channels, which allows advertisers to reach niche           The more reality programs an individual reported liking, the more status oriented
markets (Hiebert & Gibbons, 2000). The majority of reality television                  they were, they placed a higher value on vengeance, were more motivated by
programming is geared towards the individuals under twentyfive years old               social life, less motivated by honor, more focused on order, and more concerned
(Frank, 2003). MTV has been presenting the Real World to this target younger           with romance. The reality television shows that people prefer to watch are those
demographic for more than ten years. Frank (2003) suggests that younger                that stimulate the motives people intrinsically value the most.
viewers are drawn to these shows because they depict characters and situations
that are relevant to their everyday lives. However, it was not until the debut of          Hall (2006) conducted focus groups to understand why participants enjoy
Survivor in the year 2000 (Rowen, 2000), that reality television has gained a spot     watching reality TV programming. Participants enjoyed reality shows most
on network primetime television, where the reality genre shows began to target         because of their humor and suspense. Reality programs were also found to found
an older demographic (Rowen, 2000). There is a variety of shows that still target      to fulfill social functions for the viewers. Respondents reported watching with
the younger demographic, but now there are more shows that target a much wider         friends and talking with friends about the reality shows they watched.
demographic. For example, network primetime shows such as The Apprentice               Participants indicated that their view of reality TV programming as realistic was
target the 1849 demographic (Rowen, 2000). Therefore, it is most likely that a         fluid. The criteria were different from show to show and changed as new shows
greater range of individuals are watching reality television today than in the past.   were broadcast. Therefore, perceived reality may be a difficult concept to
                                                                                       measure.
     Nabi et al. (2003) examined the genre of reality television programming
itself. Multidimensional space analysis, of all television shows, indicates that           Papacharissi and Mendelson (2007) examine the gratifications sought from
reality television is a genre that is distinct from all of the other pre-existing      reality TV. Concurrent with previous research, findings indicate that respondents
genres; however, not all reality shows should be considered one cohesive genre         reported watching reality TV mainly to pass the time or for entertainment
(Nabi et al., 2003). Two dimensions were found in the analysis, with the first one     purposes. The respondents who reported watching for entertainment were most
presented as a continuum as to how suited the programs are for primetime               likely to perceive the shows as realistic. Barton (2006) examined reality TV
programming. The second dimension is fiction real. This is a continuum based on        programming and gratifications obtained. Results indicated that the content of the
whether the programs were portrayed as fictional or realistic based shows. Some        reality show influenced the gratifications obtained. A new gratification that has
"reality" shows were listed as fictional because for some reason, the audience did     not been studied was identified in this study, personal utility. This was one of the
not perceive the show as realistic (Nabi et al., 2003).                                strongest predictors of overall gratifications obtained. Personal utility refers to
                                                                                       the viewer gaining something personally useful from the program. This research
     Interestingly, not all reality shows were classified as "reality," and not all    provides support for viewers genre specific programming selection is related to
fictional shows were classified as “fictional.” Some individuals included shows        the gratifications obtained. Therefore it is important to understand that the
that were not necessarily reality based in their definition of reality programming     viewers are watching for different reasons. These reasons may lead to differing
because they perceived the shows as unrealistic (e.g., soap operas). Therefore,        perception by viewers and thus differing effects.
when studying reality television it is important to examine the subcategories

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Review of related literature samples

  • 1. RESEARCH ON LEARNING FROM TELEVISION reviews of the literature are helpful for synthesizing findings. Individual studies contribute a point of view and define variables, but it takes a review to examine Barbara Seels each study in light of others. Fortunately, there have been many outstanding University of Pittsburgh reviews of the literature. For example, Reid and MacLennan (1967) and Chu and Karen Fullerton Schramm (1968) did comprehensive reviews of learning from television that included studies on utilization. Aletha Huston-Stein (1972) wrote a chapter for Celeron Consultants the National Society for the Study of Education (NSSE) yearbook on Early Louis Berry Childhood Education entitled Mass Media and Young Children‟s Development University of Pittsburgh which presented a conceptual framework for studying television‟s effects. In 1975, the Rand Corporation published three books by George Comstock that Laura J. Horn reviewed pertinent scientific literature, key studies, and the state of research. Jerome and Dorothy Singer reviewed the implications of research for children‟s 12.1.1 Relevance to Instructional Technology cognition, imagination, and emotion (Singer & Singer, 1983). In that article, they Research on learning from television encompasses more than formal described the trend toward studying cognitive processes and formal features. By instruction. This body of research addresses learning in home as well as school 1989, the American Psychological Association had produced a synthesis of the environments. Many of the findings are relevant to the instructional technologist; literature tided Big World, Small Screen. for example, research on formal features* yields guidelines for message design. Other reviews have concentrated on special areas like reading skills Instructional technologists can both promote students‟ learning to regulate and (Williams, 1986); cognitive development (Anderson & Collins, 1988); reinforce their own viewing* and educate parents and teachers about media instructional television (Cambre, 1987); and violence (Liebert & Sprafkin, 1988). utilization. Lawrence Erlbaum Publishers offers a series of volumes edited by Dolf Zillmann In addition, instructional technologists are also responsible for and Jennings Bryant on research and theory about television effects. Light and recommending and supporting policy that affects television utilization. The Pillemer (1984) argue against the single decisive study approach and propose literature provides support for policy positions related to (a) control of reviews around a specific research question that starts by reporting the main advertising and violence, (b) parent and teacher training, (c) provision of special effects, then reports special circumstances that affect outcomes, and finishes by programming, and (d) media literacy education. reporting special effects on particular types of people. This integrated research strategy is especially appropriate for reviews of research on television effects. Researchers in instructional technology can determine gaps in the theoretical base by using reviews such as this. In the future, more research that relates 12.3.6 Current Issues variables studied by psychologists to variables studied by educators will be Contemporary research in the cognitive effects of the television medium has required in order to identify guidelines for interventions and programming. generally continued along the same agendas as in previous decades. Additional 12.2.1.2 Review Articles and Books research into the nature of the television viewing act has further confirmed the active theoretical approach. Recent researchers have explored the role of the Despite such long-term efforts, much of the literature on television lacks auditory message and reported findings that demonstrate the power of audio cues connection to other findings (Clark, 1983, 1994; Richey, 1986). The conceptual in helping children identify critical information in the visual track which direct theory necessary to explain the relationship among variables is still evolving. their attention to comprehensible program content. Research has shown that the Because of this, consumers of the literature are sometimes overwhelmed and relationship between attention and comprehension, previously identified, is a unable to make decisions related to interactions in the television viewing system complex and interactive process which relies on both visual and auditory of programming, environment, and behavior. Comprehensive and specialized information as well as prior knowledge of content (Bickham, Wright, & Huston,
  • 2. 2000). Researchers have also addressed the variable of comprehension in recent their self-efficacy may translate to a stronger sense of their role as a civic research. Studies by Clifford, Gunter, and McAleer (1995) found that children participant. demonstrate different information processing and conceptualizing abilities than To watch or not to watch? That is the question. do older individuals, and they caution that much of this area has received little Identifying the common characteristics of the reality television viewing audience. research attention. Further work by Kelly and Spear (1991) indicated that comprehension could be improved by the addition of viewing aids such as Presented to the Faculty synopses, which are placed at strategic points in the program. Research involving Liberty University the use of closed captioning for deaf students demonstrated the critical nature of School of Communication the audio track in facilitating comprehension of television program content as In Partial Fulfilment of the Requirements for the well as the beneficial effects of such captioning for all students ( Jelinek- Lewis Master of Arts & Jackson, 2001). In Communication Studies TCC 2011 Proceedings By Laura M. Sipple The Effect of Reality TV on Civic Behaviors May 1, 2008 Fanning Elizabeth University of Virginia CHAPTER 2 – LITERATURE REVIEW Reality Show Viewers Charlottesville, VA, USA tsadi@aol.com Why are so many people tuning in to view these programs and who are the people that continue to watch each season? While research relating to reality Related Theory and Studies television is relatively new, several studies have been conducted in relation to viewer characteristics, media effects, realism and gratifications. However, due to Social Learning Theory the popularity of fictional crime, detective dramas and police work, most of the Social learning is a behavioral modelling technique that uses the context of a earliest research relied heavily on these types of series including shows such as social group or setting and the resulting group dynamics to teach social, COPS and America‟s Most Wanted. (Oliver & Armstrong, 1; Andrejevic). emotional, and practical competencies (Bandura, 1969, 1977). This group Previous research has briefly explored why viewers watch certain programs dynamic encourages a similar reflexive quality in self-perception, and contributes but has been limited in their sampling sizes or program selections. In Oliver and to the learner‟s sense of self-efficacy (Ibid, 1997). This developing self-efficacy Armstrong‟s study, the data focused primarily on crime shows (COPS and bolsters the learner‟s confidence and willingness to further explore and engage in America‟s Most Wanted) and did not consider other types of reality programs for certain behaviors (Ibid), and to choose activities or behaviors in which the their study. Random telephone surveys were conducted in Wisconsin and learners feels they will be successful (Ormond, 1999). Virginia in areas centered on large universities and only adults who were not full- Online social networks are rich with opportunities for social learning, with time students participated. Researchers sought to identify why viewers enjoyed the group dynamics of the discussion boards and blog postings driving and watching reality-based, fictional crime programs. (561) setting the terms for acceptable attitudes and behaviors, along with participant Reiss & Wiltz‟s study utilized a questionnaire format and chose human ratings providing immediate feedback. Similarly, if through participating in the service workers and college students as participants. Five specific reality shows social networks surrounding the television show American Idol, people learn that were noted on the questionnaire and included Survivor, Big Brother, Temptation they can change the outcome of an episode through their opinions and voting, Island, The Mole, and The Real World. Researchers chose these five shows based on the “low level of morals found on the shows and the exploitation of the
  • 3. participants as well as their appeal to a viewer‟s basic human quest for truth and as these arose, a shift in research was directed to what viewers do with media, need for genuineness.” (370) Again, only a limited number of reality shows were rather than what media does to people. (Klapper 27). addressed in this study and two groups of participants were selected. According to a recent article in the Journal of Consumer Research, “Reality In the study conducted by Nabi, Biely, Morgan and Stitt, only Arizona TV allows viewers to imagine themselves as actual participants.” (Rose & Wood) residents who were awaiting jury duty participated in the study. And most The authors continue their discussion by assessing that viewer‟s blend fact with recently, a study conducted in 2006 by Alice Hall addressed the audience‟s fantasy, a term they have coined “hyper-authenticity.” In these cases, viewers understanding of the “nature, realism and gratifications” of reality show compare and contrast their lives to the participant's lives depicted onscreen. programs. (191) the study participants included college students at an urban Midwestern university, with an average age of twenty three. Here again, the Other research has shown viewers may have a voyeuristic nature (Johnson participants chosen were limited. While the results of these studies are useful to 56). However, this is a claim that Nabi, Biely, Morgan and Stitt refutes. further understand the nature of audiences, more diversity among participants According to their study, voyeurism was not evident in the data. “Viewers could have produced results that may be applied more universally in the field. wanted to watch other people, but did not see something the characters didn‟t want them to see.” (324) In this study, regular television programs as well as Some research, including work conducted by Katz, Blumer & Gurevitch, seven specific reality-based programs -- Survivor, Real World, A Wedding Story, takes a psychological perspective and utilizes the uses and gratification theory. Temptation Island, The Mole, Blind Date and COPS -- represented a variety of According to this theory, the audience is active and media is goal-directed. The sub-categories of the reality show genre. The results indicated that regular audience has specific expectations and these expectations motivate their choice viewers note that reality television programs are “novel,” “suspenseful” and of media. Media is in competition with other sources for satisfaction and viewers enjoy their “unscripted nature” and “watch because they are entertained” individuals are aware of these needs and audience media selections and whereas casual viewers watch out of “curiosity and entertainment.” (320). In subsequent gratifications are known and able to be effectively communicated. addition, very few differences were found among participants in regard to race, (Grossberg, Wartella & Whitney 266-267) sex or age. This approach has been taken by Nabi, Biely, Morgan and Stitt in the study Reiss and Wiltz concurred with Nabi, Biely, Morgan and Stitt and took the of reality television -“what it is, how it differs from other types of programs and research a step further to locate unique motivations for each individual. Their who watches it and why.” (324) specifically, the study focused on the following study was based on Reiss‟ theory of human behavior, more specifically “16 basic gratifications identified by Katz, Blumler, & Gurevitch: “diversion,” “personal desires.” Based on Aristotle‟s means and ends, and a variation of the “uses and relationships,” “personal identity” and “surveillance.” (312) Results indicated gratification” approach, Reiss expands the theory to include 16 fundamental that the gratification for regular viewers exceeded those of casual viewers and meanings of human life and suggests all goals in life can be categorized into one regular viewers needed to be entertained versus casual viewers who watched in of the following categories: “power, curiosity, independence, status, social hopes of “alleviating boredom.” (325). contact, vengeance, honor, idealism, physical exercise, romance, family, order, eating, acceptance, tranquillity and saving.” While this theory has been accepted, cited repeatedly and has propelled other theories, it has been criticized by other scholars. (O‟Guinn & Faber). Criticisms According to Reiss and Wiltz, “if we could identify the most basic or included the lack of clarity, the nature of the audience, and reliance on the data, fundamental motives of human life, we may be able to connect these motives to specifically, reliance on self-reports. (Anderson &Meyer; Swanson; Sparks) In desires to pay attention to various media experiences.” (364) Their results response to these criticisms, R.B. Rubin identified the following six reasons why showed that status was the main motivational factor in determining what program children watched television: learning, habit, companionship, escape, arousal and to watch. “The more status-oriented people are, the more likely they are to view relaxation. This aided in addressing the problem of applying the research to other reality television and report pleasure and enjoyment.” (373) They also found that areas (lack of clarity), and helped to address data validity. When questions such particular shows may appeal to different psychological needs. For example,
  • 4. Survivor may appeal to those who are more competitive in nature, thus filling the we cannot, or have not yet had the chance to, experience in person; trying on need for vengeance. (374). alternative identities; or otherwise adopting the goals, feelings, or thoughts imagined to be those of the target of our identification. Whether this vicarious Other studies focus on the personal connections that a viewer can potentially experience results in overt behavior or takes on a more purely imaginative form, make with a specific person being portrayed on television shows, not on the it is this vicarious experience that makes identification central.” (249). reasons or motivations they may receive for watching a specific program. This approach to the study of television audiences addresses the process known as In an attempt to measure identification, Cohen has developed the following identification. four dimensions of identification: “(1) empathy or sharing the feelings of the character, (2) a cognitive aspect that is manifest in sharing the perspective of the While no studies specifically mentioned the use of identification as an character, (3) motivational -- addresses the degree to which the audience member audience response to reality programs in the United States, studies linking the internalizes and shares the goals of the character and (4) the absorption or the process of identification between audiences and television programs exist. Rubin degree to which self-awareness is lost during exposure to the text.” (256) R.B. & McHugh (290) saw that the longer an audience member is exposed to a character, the more likely they are able to imagine themselves as that character. Hussmann, Lagerspetz & Eron, discovered that children who identified with aggressive television characters increased their learning of aggressive behavior. Some scholars contend that identification can occur after the viewing has Many studies have been conducted to evaluate an audience‟s identification with taken place. Resengren noted that “equally or even more important are those television characters (Chory-Assad Cicchirillo 154), fictional characters (Hoorn relationships which extend beyond the moment of viewing ... „long term & Konijn 255), and national identity (Creeber 31) however, only one study identification‟ with one or more of the personae of the media world.” (349) specifically addressed the process of identification in relation to reality television programs (Aslama & Pantti 52); and this was a study conducted in Finland. Early studies conducted on identification took on a psychological approach and focused on a child‟s need for identification and how it related to the Results indicated that the construction of national identity was intentional on the formation of one‟s social identity (Freud; Erikson). part of the producers and that some details, perhaps unintentional, also contributed to the formation of national identity. Kenneth Burke took the process a few steps further conducting extensive REALITY TV AND INTERPERSONAL RELATIONSHIP PERCEPTIONS research on the subject of identification and believed that the process of identification occurs when “one individual shares the interests of another A Dissertation presented to the Faculty of the Graduate School at the University of individual or believes that he or she shares the interest of another.” (Burke 180). Missouri Columbia Herbert Kelman accepted Burke‟s research but added the process of persuasion and included that in identification as well. He claims that an individual goes In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy through a three-stage process of identification: 1) compliance, 2) identification, By KRISTIN L. CHERRY and 3) internalization. During this three-stage process, identification can take on Dr. Jennifer Stevens Aubrey, Dissertation Supervisor one of two forms. The first form can be “classical - attempts to be like or actually MAY 2008 be the other person” (Kelman 63). Secondly, Kelman says the individual may take the “recipricol role of identification - the roles of two parties are defined Literature Review Reality Television Research with reference to one another.” (64). Reality television programming has been around since the first broadcast of Cohen has defined identification as “an imaginative process through which Candid Camera in the late 1940‟s. It has not been until recently that these types an audience member assumes the identity, goals, and perspective of a character” of shows have gained immense popularity. The debut of Survivor in 2000 has (Cohen 261). He continues by discussing an individual taking on a vicarious been credited with beginning the infiltration of reality programming in the experience. “Vicarious experience may take various forms: experiencing things current television landscape
  • 5. (Rowen, 2000). Individuals are embracing this genre of television within this genre. They include: romantic, talent, quiz, and game (Bailey & programming as a relatively permanent fixture in television programming. In Barbato, 2003). In this study, I will examine not only reality television viewing 2003 the Academy of Television Arts and Sciences added "Best Reality Show" as a whole, but also exposure to subgenres of reality television. as an Emmy category (Rowen, 2000). This has led to the development of many types of reality programming formats. While the research in this area is relatively Some research has sought to discover why people watch reality television. limited despite the recent surge in reality programming, in what follows I aim to Reiss and Wiltz (2004) asked individuals to rate themselves on Reiss's 16 basic summarize previous research in this area. life motives and also to report how much they viewed reality programs and how much they enjoyed these shows. Results indicated that the appeal to reality The increase in reality programming is undoubtedly related to with the television programs was dependent on the amount of reality television watched. increasing number of cable channels, which allows advertisers to reach niche The more reality programs an individual reported liking, the more status oriented markets (Hiebert & Gibbons, 2000). The majority of reality television they were, they placed a higher value on vengeance, were more motivated by programming is geared towards the individuals under twentyfive years old social life, less motivated by honor, more focused on order, and more concerned (Frank, 2003). MTV has been presenting the Real World to this target younger with romance. The reality television shows that people prefer to watch are those demographic for more than ten years. Frank (2003) suggests that younger that stimulate the motives people intrinsically value the most. viewers are drawn to these shows because they depict characters and situations that are relevant to their everyday lives. However, it was not until the debut of Hall (2006) conducted focus groups to understand why participants enjoy Survivor in the year 2000 (Rowen, 2000), that reality television has gained a spot watching reality TV programming. Participants enjoyed reality shows most on network primetime television, where the reality genre shows began to target because of their humor and suspense. Reality programs were also found to found an older demographic (Rowen, 2000). There is a variety of shows that still target to fulfill social functions for the viewers. Respondents reported watching with the younger demographic, but now there are more shows that target a much wider friends and talking with friends about the reality shows they watched. demographic. For example, network primetime shows such as The Apprentice Participants indicated that their view of reality TV programming as realistic was target the 1849 demographic (Rowen, 2000). Therefore, it is most likely that a fluid. The criteria were different from show to show and changed as new shows greater range of individuals are watching reality television today than in the past. were broadcast. Therefore, perceived reality may be a difficult concept to measure. Nabi et al. (2003) examined the genre of reality television programming itself. Multidimensional space analysis, of all television shows, indicates that Papacharissi and Mendelson (2007) examine the gratifications sought from reality television is a genre that is distinct from all of the other pre-existing reality TV. Concurrent with previous research, findings indicate that respondents genres; however, not all reality shows should be considered one cohesive genre reported watching reality TV mainly to pass the time or for entertainment (Nabi et al., 2003). Two dimensions were found in the analysis, with the first one purposes. The respondents who reported watching for entertainment were most presented as a continuum as to how suited the programs are for primetime likely to perceive the shows as realistic. Barton (2006) examined reality TV programming. The second dimension is fiction real. This is a continuum based on programming and gratifications obtained. Results indicated that the content of the whether the programs were portrayed as fictional or realistic based shows. Some reality show influenced the gratifications obtained. A new gratification that has "reality" shows were listed as fictional because for some reason, the audience did not been studied was identified in this study, personal utility. This was one of the not perceive the show as realistic (Nabi et al., 2003). strongest predictors of overall gratifications obtained. Personal utility refers to the viewer gaining something personally useful from the program. This research Interestingly, not all reality shows were classified as "reality," and not all provides support for viewers genre specific programming selection is related to fictional shows were classified as “fictional.” Some individuals included shows the gratifications obtained. Therefore it is important to understand that the that were not necessarily reality based in their definition of reality programming viewers are watching for different reasons. These reasons may lead to differing because they perceived the shows as unrealistic (e.g., soap operas). Therefore, perception by viewers and thus differing effects. when studying reality television it is important to examine the subcategories