Basics of management

1. Chapter 1
Contemporary Management
by
Dr.Raafat Youssef Shehata

2. Table of contents
• Chapter 1:Introduction to contemporary management
• Chapter 2: Coaching
• Chapter 3:Decision making
• Chapter 4:Interviewing skills
• Chapter 5: Organizational behavior
• Chapter 6: Motivation
• Chapter 7: Leadership

3. 3
Basic Concepts of Management

4. Who Are Managers?
Manager
Someone who works with and through other
people by coordinating and integrating their
work activities in order to accomplish
organizational goals

5. Classifying Managers

6. Management
Functions of Management PLOCS
1. Planning
2. Leading
3. Organizing
4. Controlling
5. Staffing

7. Span of Control
-Number of employees who report to a supervisor
-Traditional view = 7 subordinates per manager
-Organizations today = 30+ subordinates

8. • Span of Control used in an organization determines
whether the structure is tall or flat
• Tall structure have a narrow span and more levels
• Flat structure has a wide span and fewer levels
• The trend has been toward wider spans of control
Tall versus Flat Structure

9. Span of control: Tall vs. Flat Organizations
Structure Concepts

10. • Line Authority -
management with
formal power to direct
and control immediate
subordinates
• Staff Authority -
granted to staff
specialists in their
area of expertise
Line and Staff Authority

11. Centralization and Decentralization
• Centralization
● The degree to which decision making is
concentrated at a single point in the organization.
• Decentralization
● The degree to which decision making is spread
throughout the organization.

12. 1. CONCEPTUAL AND DECISION SKILLS
Refer to the cognitive ability to see the organization as a
whole and the relationships among its parts.
2. Human skills
Involve the ability to work with and through other people and
to work effectively as a group member.
3. TECHNICAL SKILLS
The ability to perform a specialized task that involves a certain
method or process.
Management Skills

13. Skills Needed at Different
Management Levels

14. Chapter 2: Coaching

15. What is Coaching?
It is an opportunity to
contribute to another person’s
development

16. "Helping people to develop and
perform to their full potential".
What is Coaching?

17. Coaching, Counseling, Training
• Training: Structured process to provide knowledge
and teach skills.
• Counseling: Problem solving directed at specific
issues affecting performance.
• Coaching: An on going process. Enables learning
and development.

18. • Inform
• Teach
• Guide
• Recognize
Purposes of Coaching

19. Purposes of Coaching (cont.)
• Motivate
• Assist
• Develop
• Empower

20. EFFECTIVE COACHING IS
SPECIFIC
• What is done well and what
needs improvement
• Required skills and knowledge
• Standards of good performance
• Significance of the job
• Corrective action

21. EFFECTIVE COACHING IS
INTERACTIVE
• Discuss rather than lecture
or give orders
• Ask questions
• Listen to what the employee
has to say
• Pay attention to
body-language, too

22. A coach helps his people mentally by
arming them with the skills,
knowledge and strategies to help
them be successful.

23. • In a recent, they found that 83% of
senior executives believed that human
capital is the key to maintaining an edge
over competitors.
study conducted by the management consulting firm KPMG

24. Wrong Reasons for Coaching
• Power
• Fulfill their own agenda

25. Right Reasons for Coaching
• Molding a group of individuals into a team
• Be part of the game – love of the sport
• Pass on knowledge
• Enjoyment of teaching players to play better and help
them develop
• The thrill and excitement of sport
• Help young players have fun
• Want to share the experience with your kids
• Nothing kills a team’s spirit faster than an apathetic
coach
• Leadership is inspiring people to do their best

26. Great Coaches Are Teachers
• Teaching them the skills
• Teaching them how to play within the team
concept
• Teaching them how to make good decisions
• Teaching them not to be afraid to fail
• Teaching them character values
• Teaching them to be successful as players and
people

27. Challenges in Coaching

28. You get what you expect
• What leaders expect from their subordinates
and how leaders treat their subordinates
usually determines their performance.
• Subordinates, more often than not, appear to
do what they are expected to do.

29. Where to coach?
Where; to create opportunities for coaching:
• Office coaching.
• Field coaching.
• Comfort and privacy must be ensured, and the
atmosphere should be non-threatening

30. Effective coaching needs trust

31. What is Trust?
Willingness to
have an
unguarded
interaction
Coach Coachee

32. Feedback
information about reactions to a product,
a person's performance of a task, etc.
which is used as a basis for improvement.

33. Giving Feedback: Common Mistakes
• Monologue rather than a dialog
• Thinking that a good coach always has to find something wrong
• “Do it my way” solution (subjective standard)
• Aggressive/threatening — challenging the individual not the behavior
• Not celebrating small increments of progress toward goal
• Difficulty (sugar-coating or avoiding) sharing hard messages
• Too general, not actionable
• Failure to focus, feedback on too many behaviors
• Jumping from point to point without closure

34. Giving feedback
• Prepare what you want to say
• Describe their behaviour – give examples
• Tell them the impact it has on you
• Tell them what you would like them to do in future
• Check understanding
• Listen
• Be prepared to move on

35. The Sandwich Technique
The Feedback process:
1.Give balanced feedback starting with positives
2.Give feedback at the appropriate time
3.Share The Problem
4.Criticize the performance not the performer.
5.Give feedback on thing that can be changed
6.Be specific
7.Check to ensure understanding.

36. Chapter 3:Decision Making

37. Making choices from among two or more
alternatives
Decision Making

38. A systematic approach to
decision making process
1- Identification of a problem/opportunity
2- Identification of decision criteria
3- Allocating weights to criteria
4- Development of alternatives
5- Analysis of alternatives
6- Selection of an alternative
7- Implementation of the alternative
8- Evaluation of decision effectiveness

39. Certainty, Risk, Uncertainty,
Ambiguity
• Certainty
● all the information is fully available
• Risk
● decision has clear goals
● information is available
● future outcomes are subject to chance
• Uncertainty
● managers know which goals they wish to achieve
● information is incomplete
● may need to develop creative alternatives
• Ambiguity
● goals to be achieved or the problem to be solved is unclear
● alternatives are difficult to define
● information about outcomes is unavailable

40. * 40
Conditions that Affect the Possibility of
Decision Failure
Organizational
Problem
Problem
Solution
Low HighPossibility of Failure
Certainty Risk Uncertainty Ambiguity
Programmed
Decisions
Nonprogrammed
Decisions

41. Classification of decisions

42. • Programmed decisions are routine decisions, made by lower-level
personnel, that rely on predetermined courses of action
• Non-programmed decisions are decisions for which there are no
ready-made solutions. The decision maker confronts a unique
situation in which the solutions are novel
Strategic decisions are non-programmed decisions that have
important long-term implications for the organization and are made by
coalitions of high-level executives
Programmed vs. Non-programmed

43. Programmed vs. Non-programmed
Programmed Non-programmed
Type of task Simple, routine Complex, creative
Reliance on
organizational policies
Guidance from past
decisions
No guidance form past
decisions
Typical decision maker Lower level Upper level

44. Problems and Decisions
• Structured Problems
● Involve goals that clear.
● Are familiar (have occurred before).
● Are easily and completely defined—information
about the problem is available and complete.
• Programmed Decision
● A repetitive decision that can be handled by a
routine approach.

45. Problems and Decisions
• Unstructured Problems
● Problems that are new or unusual and for which
information is ambiguous or incomplete.
● Problems that will require custom-made
solutions.
• Non-programmed Decisions
● Decisions that are unique and nonrecurring.
● Decisions that generate unique responses.

46. Rational decision making
-The problem is clear
-A single well defined goal is to be achieved
-All alternatives and consequences are known
-Preferences are clear
-Preferences are constant and stable
-No time or cost constraints

47. Intuitive decision making
A subconscious process of making decisions on the
basis of experience and accumulated judgment

48. Intuition
1-Experience based decisions:
- Making decisions based on their past experiences
2-Affect-initiated decisions:
-Making decisions based on emotions

49. 3-Cognitive-based decisions:
-Making decisions based on knowledge &training
4-Subconscious mental processing :
-Making decisions from subconscious mind
Intuition

50. When is Intuition Used?
1-When a high level of uncertainty exists
2-When there is little precedent to draw on
3-When variables are less scientifically predictable
4-When “facts” are limited
5-When facts don’t clearly point the way

51. When is Intuition Used?
6-When analytical data are of little use
7-When there are several plausible alternative
solutions from which to choose
8-When time is limited and there is pressure to
come up with the right decision

52. Escalation of Commitment The tendency for individuals to continue to
support previously unsuccessful courses of action because they have
sunk costs invested in them
Escalation of Commitment

53. Escalation of commitment
• An increased commitment to a previous
decision despite evidence that it may have been
wrong
• This is because they do not want to admit that
their initial decisions have been wrong

54. Reasons why people have
difficulty in making decisions
-Fear of failing
-Fear of success/believing that others will expect
always expect perfection following a success
-Unable to set priorities/don’t know what to do first
-Not knowing where to get the information needed to
help with the decision
-Hoping someone else will decide

55. ● -Having little experience in making decisions and
feeling overwhelmed
● -Not being willing to sacrifice immediate comfort for the
long-term gain
● -Fear that others will disapprove of the decision
● -Believing decisions won’t really matter, other
circumstances will ultimately dictate the outcome
Reasons why people have
difficulty in making decisions

56. Decision quality
1. Know your biases
1. Do you do enough analysis?
1. Are you hesitant to make a decision?
1. Sleep on it
1. Use others to help
1. Study decision makers

57. Common Decision-Making
Errors and Biases

58. Overconfidence Bias
-Holding unrealistically positive views of one’s self and
one’s performance.
-Individuals whose intellectual and interpersonal
abilities are weakest are most likely to overestimate
their performance and ability

59. Immediate Gratification Bias
Choosing alternatives that offer immediate
rewards and that to avoid immediate costs.

60. Anchoring Effect
Fixating on initial information and ignoring
subsequent information.

61. Selective Perception
Selecting organizing and interpreting events
based on the decision maker’s biased
perceptions.

62. Confirmation Bias
-It is a type of selective perception.
-Seeking out information that reaffirms past choices
and discounting contradictory information.

63. Framing Bias
Selecting and highlighting certain aspects of a
situation while ignoring other aspects.

64. Availability Bias
Tendency for people to base judgments on
information that is readily available

65. Self-Serving Bias
-Taking quick credit for successes and blaming
outside factors for failures
-Korean managers found that, contrary to the self-
serving bias, they tended to accept responsibility for
group failure

66. Contrast Effects
• We do not evaluate a person in isolation. Our
reaction to one person is influenced by other
persons we have recently encountered.
• For example, an interview situation in which one
sees a pool of job applicants can distort
perception. Distortions in any given candidate’s
evaluation can occur as a result of his or her
place in the interview schedule

67. Stereotyping
• Stereotyping—judging someone on the basis of our
perception of the group to which he or she belongs.
• In organizations, we frequently hear comments that
represent stereotypes based on gender, age, race,
ethnicity, and even weight.

68. Halo Effect
• The halo effect occurs when we draw a general
impression on the basis of a single
characteristic
• This phenomenon frequently occurs when
students appraise their classroom instructor.

69. -Conscientiousness may effect escalation of
commitment
-Achievement strivers are likely to increase
Commitment
-Compliant people are less likely to have this bias
Personality

70. High self-esteem people are susceptible to self-
serving bias
Self-Esteem

71. Techniques to improve decision making
Improving Decision Making
1. The Delphi Technique
2. The Stepladder Technique
3. The Nominal Group Technique

72. Delphi technique: A systematic way of collecting and
organizing the opinions of several experts into a single
decision
1. Delphi technique

73. 1. Delphi technique

74. A technique for improving the quality of group decisions
that minimizes the tendency for group members to be
unwilling to present their ideas by adding new members
to a group one at a time and requiring each to present
his or her ideas independently to a group that already
has discussed the problem at hand
2. Stepladder technique

75. 2. Stepladder technique

76. Nominal Group Technique: A technique for improving group
decisions in which small groups of individuals systematically
present and discuss their ideas before privately voting on
their preferred solution. The most preferred solution is
accepted as the group’s decision
3. Nominal Group
Technique

77. 3. Nominal Group Technique

78. Group versus Individual
Decision Making
Criteria of Effectiveness Groups Individuals
Accuracy ✓
Speed ✓
Creativity ✓
Degree of acceptance ✓

79. Chapter 4
Interviewing Candidates

80. What is an interview?
An interview is a procedure designed to obtain
information from a person through oral
responses to oral inquiries.

81. We can classify selection
interviews according to:
a. How structured they are.
b. Their content “the types of questions they contain”.
c. How the firm administers the interviews.

82. Unstructured or nondirective interviews:
it is an unstructured conversational style
interview in which the interviewer pursues
points of interest as they come up in response
to questions.
Structured or directive interviews:
The interview follow a set sequence of questions.
Semi-structured Interviews :
How structured the interviews are:

83. Situational interview
the interviewer asks a series of job-related questions
that focus on how the candidate would behave in a
given situation.
Behavioral interviews
which is a series of job-related questions that focus
on how the candidate reacted to actual situations in
the past.
Interview content: Type of
questions

84. 1-Introduction- Establishing Rapport
2-Information Exchange
3- Closing
Stages of the interview

85. ● Begins with small talk or few casual questions or
general icebreaking questions or general remarks.
● Purpose is to establish rapport and find a comfortable
level of communication.
1-Establishing Rapport

86. Shifts from small talk to general information about
candidate, organization and position.
2-Information Exchange

87. ● Stage to pull together loose ends
● May give the applicant the chance to ask questions
● Confirm the follow up method and thank the candidate.
3-Closing

88. The Interview Questions
• Tell me about yourself?
• Why did you leave your job?
• What is your biggest weakness?
• What is you biggest strength?
• Why can you do the job?
• What’s your great weakness?
• Why you change job’s so frequently?
• What is your biggest mistake in career?
• How would your supervisor / friends describe you?
• Tell me a story?
• Tell me a joke?
• What can you offer that others don’t?
• What is your major accomplishments?

89. Why did you leave your job ?
• Stay Positive
• Show desire for growth opportunities.
• Employers are looking for employees with good
attitudes even when working in bad situations.

90. What is your biggest
weakness ?
• Why is he asking ?
• Mention your weakness.
• Discuss what you have done to overcome it.
• Criteria of the chosen weakness:
● Real.
● Relatively harmless.
● Its influence is mainly personal and not official
● On going improvement
● Work-related.

91. What you should know about
an organization
• Potential advancements.
• Atmosphere.
• Benefits.
• Bonuses.
• Dress code.
• Ethics and integrity.
• Owners.
• Flexible / rigid structure.
• Org. goals.
• Growth potential.
• Training.
• Turnover.
• Company type
• Main customers.
• Company history.
• Location.
• Management philosophy.
• Management structure.
• Office politics.
• Previous problems faced.
• Product / services.
• Profit / sales volume.
• Reputation.
• Research.
• Relocation potential.
• Size.
• Stability.
Keep them
In your
heart

92. Signs of interviwee stress
1. Sweating
2. Flushing
3. Increased blinking
4. Tremors
5. Hesitency
6. Irritability

93. Projective techniques

94. Projective techniques
Projective techniques allow respondents to project their
subjective or true opinions and beliefs onto other
people or even objects.

95. Projective techniques
1- Word association test
2-Sentence completion test
3-Story completion
4-Picture completion
5-Thematic apperception test (TAT)
6-Third-person techniques

96. Gaining commitment
-Because sales positions usually require skill at
gaining commitment sales managers will want
to see if the candidate has that skill or not
-Be prepared to close the interview with some
form of gaining commitment
“I am very excited about this opportunity what is
our next step ?”

97. Contrast Effects
• We do not evaluate a person in isolation. Our
reaction to one person is influenced by other
persons we have recently encountered.
• For example, an interview situation in which one
sees a pool of job applicants can distort
perception. Distortions in any given candidate’s
evaluation can occur as a result of his or her
place in the interview schedule

98. Stereotyping
• Stereotyping—judging someone on the basis of our
perception of the group to which he or she belongs.
• In organizations, we frequently hear comments that
represent stereotypes based on gender, age, race,
ethnicity, and even weight.

99. Halo Effect
• The halo effect occurs when we draw a general
impression on the basis of a single
characteristic
• This can lead either to a negative or a positive
conclusions.

100. Feelings
-If you like a candidate, you may attach attributes
to them that don't actually exist.
- Gut-feeling

101. Snap Judgments
-Make quick decisions rather than gathering
information during the interview and evaluating it
afterwards.

102. Chapter 4
Dynamics of Behavior in
Organizations

103. 103
Organizational Behavior (OB)
• Interdisciplinary field dedicated to the study of:
✓ attitudes
✓ behavior
✓ performance

104. * 104
Attitudes
• Cognitive and affective evaluation that
predisposes a person to act in a
certain way
• Attitudes determine how people
● Perceive the work environment
● Interact with others
● Behave on the job

105. Attitude components
Awareness
Interest
Desire
Action

106. Indicators of good attitude
• A friendly smile
• good posture
• talking in nice tone of voice
• being interested in others
• making complaints in appropriate ways at appropriate times
• being respectful and courteous
• being calm
• doing a good job
• handling anger appropriately.

107. Indicators of bad attitude
• unhappy look on face
• slumping in chair or while standing
• constant complaining
• encouraging others to have a bad attitude
• losing your temper
• doing a poor job
• ignoring others.

108. Perception
How people make sense out of the environment
→ Selecting
→ Organizing
→ Interpreting information

109. Perception = Sensation + Interpretation
Defined as a process by which
people select & interpret stimuli into
a meaningful picture.
“How we see the world around us”
- Two individuals may be exposed to
the same stimuli but recognize,
select, organize and interpret them
differently based on their own needs,
values and expectations

110. Personality

111. 1) The ID operates on the pleasure principle. The ID is
selfish and illogical.
2) The superego (which is the counterweight to the ID).
It is a person’s conscience.
a) It internalizes society’s rules.
b) It works to prevent the ID from seeking selfish
gratification.
3) The ego tries to balance these two opposing forces
according to the reality principle.
Freudian theory

112. The Big Five
Extroversion - Introversion
Emotional
stability
Agreeableness
Openness to experienceConscientiousness
Source: Adapted from T.A. Judge, D. Heller, and M.K. Mount, 2002. “Five Factor Model of Personality and Job Satisfaction: A Meta-Analysis.”
Journal of Applied Psychology,87 (June), 530(12)

113. Leadership and Personality
• There are 5 basic personality dimensions.
● Neuroticism – the experience of negative emotion
● Extraversion – interest in people and being in charge
● Openness – liking the new and different
● Agreeableness – going along to get along
● Conscientiousness - liking a structured and organized life

114. Leadership and Personality
• The best predictor of long-term success is
self-awareness of your personal style.
● Allows you to play to your personal strengths
● Know where you need some help and support
• No one personality type is best – Different
types are most likely to be successful in
different kinds of organizations and in different
types of jobs.

115. The Big Five Dimensions of Personality
Sources: Greenberg. J. and Baron . R. “Behavior in Organization”

116. Emotional Intelligence (EI)
An assortment of noncognitive skills, capabilities,
and competencies that influence a person’s
ability to succeed in coping with environmental
demands and pressures.

117. Dimensions of Emotional Intelligence

118. 1-Self-awareness: knowing what you’re feeling

119. The Johari Window – a graphic model
of aware-ness in international relationsKNOWNUNKNOWN
UNKNOWNKNOWN
3 4
SELF
Tell
others
Ask others
OPEN
1 2
BLIND
HIDDE
N
UNKN
OWN
O
T
H
E
R
S
Your objective is to
make quadrant
#1 as large as
possible!

120. The open area is that part of our conscious self – our
attitudes, behavior, motivation, values, way of life –
of which we are aware and which is known to others.
We move within this area with freedom. We are
“open books”.
Open quadrant

121. We are more rich and complex than that which we
and others know, but from time to time something
happens – is felt, read, heard, dreamed –
something from our unconscious is revealed. Then
we “know” what we have never “known” before.
Unknown quadrant

122. There are things about ourselves which we do not
know, but that others can see more clearly; or things
we imagine to be true of ourselves for a variety of
reasons but that others do not see at all. When
others say what they see (feedback), in a supportive,
responsible way, and we are able to hear it; in that
way we are able to test the reality of who we are and
are able to grow.
Blind quadrant

123. Our hidden area cannot be known to others unless we
disclose it. There is that which we freely keep within
ourselves, and that which we retain out of fear. The
degree to which we share ourselves with others
(disclosure) is the degree to which we can be known.
Hidden

124. 2- Self-management: managing emotions and impulses

125. Self management
• A group of four-years old and five years old were offered a
marshmallow, which the researcher placed in front of each child
on the desk
• Then, the children were told if they can wait a few minutes while
the researcher ran an errand, they would be given 2
marshmallows
• Some children were unable to resist the temptation of a
marshmallow “right now” and ate theirs immediately
• Others employed all sorts of techniques , from singing or talking
to themselves to hiding under the desk , to resist the impulses
and earn the reward of 2 marshmallows instead of one

126. Self management
• Researchers then followed the children over a period of 20
years and found some interesting results.
• As young men and women, the ones who had resisted the
desire to eat the marshmallows revealed a much higher ability
to handle stress and embrace difficult challenges
• They also were more self confident, trustworthy, dependable
and tenacious in pursuing goals
• The children who developed techniques for self management
early in life carried these with them into adulthood

127. 3-Self-motivation:
Persisting despite setbacks and failures

128. 4-Empathy: sensing how others are feeling

129. 5-Social skills: handling the emotions of others

130. Motivation in organization

131. What Is Motivation?
• It is the reason for behavior
• Motivation: From the Latin verb movere (to move)
• It is produced by a state of arousal or tension, which
exists as the result of an unfulfilled need. Individuals
strive consciously and subconsciously to reduce the
tension through behavior they anticipate will fulfill
their needs and thus relieve of the stress they feel

132. "Never let yesterday use up today."
Richard H. Nelson

133. Figure 7.1
Steps in the
Motivational
Cycle

135. • Conscious motives are motives we are aware of,
the reasons for our behavior are clear, and these
motives do not need to be aroused
• Sometimes we are unaware of the reason why a
particular behavior was undertaken; our motivation
is unconscious
Conscious vs. unconscious Motivation

136. • Intrinsic motivation is engaging in behavior for the
pleasure of the behavior itself; the behavior is the
reward
• Extrinsic motivation is engaging in behavior for a
reward that is independent of the activity
Intrinsic vs. extrinsic Motivation

137. • Rationality implies people select goals based on
totally objective
• Emotion implies the selection of goals according to
personal or subjective criteria, such as pride, fear,
affection or status
Rational v. emotional motivation

138. Learned or unlearned
Motivation
-Biological motives are programmed into our nature
-They are unlearned
-For instance no one had to teach you to be
interested in eating or sex
-Social motives are learned as a result of living in
human society

139. Maslow’s hierarchy of
needs
• Maslow formulated a widely accepted theory of human
motivation based on a universal hierarchy of needs
• Holds that individuals seek to satisfy lower-level needs
before higher-level needs emerge
• The lowest level of chronically unsatisfied need serves to
motivate behavior
• When that need is satisfied, a new and higher need
emerges, and so on…

140. Five basic needs (in order)
■ Physiological needs
■ Safety needs
■ Social needs
■ Egoistic needs
■ Self-actualization needs
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
Physiological Needs
(Food, water, air, shelter, sex)
Safety and Security Needs
(Protection, order, stability)
Social Needs
(affection, friendship,
belonging)
Ego Needs
(Prestige,
status, self
esteem)
Self-
Actualizatio
n
(Self-
fulfillment)

141. Motivation and personality
• Self-Esteem
● The degree to which people like or dislike themselves

142. Motivation for high self
esteem employees
● High self esteem
• Believe in themselves and expect success.
• Take more risks and use unconventional approaches.
• Are more satisfied with their jobs than Low SEs.
• They depend mainly on self motivation

143. Motivation for low self
esteem employees
● Low self esteem
• Are more susceptible to external influences.
• Depend on positive evaluations from others.
• Are more prone to conform than high SEs.
• External motivation is very important for them
to enhance their performance

144. Two Factor
Motivation Theory

145. Herzberg’s Two Factor
Theory
Hygiene Factors
Dissatisfiers
• Salary
• Job Security
• Working Conditions
• Status
• Company Procedures
• Quality of Technical
Supervision
Motivator Factors
Satisfiers
• Achievement
• Recognition
• Responsibility
• Advancement
• The work itself
• The possibility of growth

146. McClelland’s Learned Needs
Theory
• McClelland believed that needs are acquired
from the culture. Three of these needs are:
● Need for achievement
● Need for affiliation
● Need for power
• When a need is strong, it motivates person to
use behavior leading to its satisfaction.

147. • People with high need for achievement pursue
goals that are challenging yet attainable through
hard work, ability and persistence
• Goals that are too easy those anyone can reach
offer no challenge and hold no interest because
success would not be rewarding
• Impossibly high goals and high risks are not
pursed because they offer little chance of success
and are considered waste of time
People with high need for
achievement

148. • They are motivated more by their fear of failure
than by their hope and expectation of success
• This is why they set either low goals which
anyone can attain or impossibly high goals
• After all who can fault a person for failing to reach
a goal that is impossible for almost anyone ?
People with low need for
achievement

149. Need for achievement
From theory to application
• Managers can foster higher need for achievement
if they give their employees responsibilities , teach
them to think and act independently, stress
excellence , persistence and independence and
praise them sincerely for their accomplishments

150. Treating people fairly

151. Equity Theory
The essence of equity theory is that employees
compare their efforts and rewards with those
of others in similar situations.

152. Change Procedures to
Restore Equity
1. Changing inputs
2. Changing outcomes
3. Changing attitudes
4. Changing the reference person
5. Leaving the field

153. Expectancy Theory
• Expectancy theory suggests that motivation
depends on individuals’ expectations about
their ability to perform tasks and receive
desiredrewards

154. Expectancy Theory

155. REINFORCEMENT
PERSPECTIVE ON MOTIVATION
• Reinforcement theory simply looks at the
relationship between behavior and its
consequences. It focuses on changing or
modifying employees’ on-the-job behavior
through the appropriate use of immediate
rewards and punishments.

156. Reinforcement
Law of Effect
Tendency to repeat behaviors which cause
favorable consequences, and not to repeat
behaviors which cause unfavorable
consequences

157. Positive Reinforcement
• A behavior is strengthened by the occurrence of
pleasant consequences.
● A manager gives a subordinate a difficult
assignment to save expenses.
● The employee exerts great effort and completes it
on time .
● The manager reviews the work & the employee is
given 25 % of the savings as a bonus.

158. Effective discipline and
punishment
The process of decreasing undesirable behavior
by following it with undesirable consequences

159. Restructuring jobs

160. Job Rotation
it is an approach to management development is
an approach to management development where
an individual is moved through a schedule of
designed to give him or her a breadth of
exposure to the entire operation.

161. Job enlargement
It is the practice of giving employees more tasks to
perform at the same level of responsibility and skill

162. Job enrichment (Delegation)
It is the practice of giving employees more tasks to
perform that require higher levels of responsibility
and skill

163. Motivation by structuring jobs

164. Base rewards on job
performance
Rewarding employees based on any other factor
rather than job performance is called
discrimination

165. Other Motivational theories

166. McGregor’s Theory X and
Theory Y
• Outlines assumptions of human nature in his
book:
The Human Side of Enterprise
• Divides assumptions into two categories:
● Theory X
● Theory Y

167. Theory X: A Pessimistic View
• Assumes that people
● do not really want to work and must be closely
supervised
● avoid responsibility
● have little or no ambition
• Assumes rewards or punishments must be
used

168. Theory X
• Managers who operate under this theory believe
● workers are paid to do a good job
● management’s function is to supervise the work
and correct employees if needed

169. Theory Y: An Optimistic View
• Assumes work is as natural to people as play
or rest
• Assumes people are capable of self-direction
and will learn and accept responsibility

170. Theory Y
• Managers who operate under this theory believe
● people will become committed to organizational
objectives if they are rewarded for doing so
● a healthy, mutually supportive work climate based
on trust, openness, and respect will influence
workers to give more of themselves

171. McGregor’s Theory X & Theory Y
Theory X
• Employees are lazy
• Lack ambition
• Resistant to change
• Interested in their own
needs
• Have to be coerced in
order to work
Theory Y
• Employees are
capable of self control
• Work is pleasurable
• Workers are not
resistant to change
• People seek and
accept responsibility
Poor management practices are the reason why people do not
have a positive attitude towards work

172. Flex-time
Program that permits employees to schedule their
own hours of work

173. Motivating a diverse workforce
through flexibility:
• Men desire more autonomy than do women.
• Women desire learning opportunities, flexible work
schedules, and good interpersonal relations.

174. 10 Great ways to motivate
employees
1. Personally thank employees for doing a
good job one on one, in writing, or both. Do
it timely, often, and sincerely.
2. Take the time to meet with and listen to
employees—as much as they need or want.
3. Provide employees with specific and
frequent feedback about their performance.
Support them in improving performance.

175. 10 Great ways to motivate
employees
4. Recognize, reward, and promote high performers;
deal with low and marginal performers so that they
improve or leave.
5. Provide information on how the company makes and
loses money, upcoming products, and services and
strategies for competing. Explain the employee’s role
in the overall plan.
6. Involve employees in decisions, especially those
decisions that affect them. Involvement equals
commitment

176. 10 Great ways to motivate
employees
7. Give employees a chance to grow and develop
new skills; encourage them to be their best. Show
them how you can help them meet their goals while
achieving the organization’s goals. Create a
partnership with each employee.
8. Provide employees with a sense of ownership in
their work and their work environment. This
ownership can be symbolic (e.g., business cards
for all employees, whether they need them to do
their jobs or not).

177. 10 Great ways to motivate
employees
9. Strive to create a work environment that is open,
trusting, and fun. Encourage new ideas,
suggestions, and initiative. Learn from, rather
than punish for, mistakes.
10. Celebrate successes—of the company, of the
department, and of individuals. Take time for
team- and morale-building meetings and
activities. Be creative and fresh.

178. CONCLOSION
What lies behind us and what lies before
us are tiny matters compared to what lies
within us

179. Teamwork

180. 180
What is a Team?
❶Unit of 2 or more
people
❷Interact or coordinate
their work
❸To accomplish a
specific goal

181. • Formal groups are created by an organization and are designed to
direct members toward some important organizational goal
● Command groups are determined by the connections between
individuals who are a formal part of the organization
● Task groups are formed around some specific task
• Informal groups develop naturally among an organization’s
personnel without any direction from the management of the
organization within which they operate
● Interest group
● Friendship group
Types of Groups

182. Types of Groups

183. Committed to shared goals
What is the difference between
A Team and A Group
Committed to individual goals
Waits for proceduresContributes to procedures
Climate of competitionClimate of cooperation
Careful and cautious with what they sayOpen and honest with each other
Conflict easily escalatesConflict is constructive

184. 184
Formal Teams
Vertical - composed of a manager and subordinates,
sometimes called functional or command teams.
Horizontal - composed of employees from the same
hierarchical level but from different areas of expertise.
Cross-functional team, task force or committee.
Special-Purpose - created outside the formal
organization for special projects and disband once
project is completed. Fast-cycle teams.

185. Self-Directed Teams
❶ Employees with several skills and functions
❷ Given access to various resources
❸ Empowered with decision making authority

186. Teamwork and personality
• People with a balance between competitive and
cooperative goals can work in team
• People with no cooperative goals do not believe
in teamwork

187. Teamwork and culture
It more common in the Asian cultures while is
rare among American cultures

188. Criteria of group effectiveness
• Fulfilment of task & organisation goals.
• Satisfaction of group members.

189. Stages of Team Development

190. Forming stage

191. Storming stage

192. Conflict

193. Competition Collaboration
Compromise
Avoidance Accommodation
Concern for Other
ConcernforSelf
Low cooperation High cooperation
Low
aggression
/ energy
High
aggression
/ energy
Individual Conflict Styles

194. Causes of Team Conflict
✓ Scarce Resources
✓ Communication breakdown
✓ Personality clashes
✓ Goal differences

195. Avoidance (No one wins)
• Advantages
● Allows time to think
● Helps you not to get too involved in the conflict
• Disadvantages
● May demonstrate that you don’t care
● Gives impression that you’re not flexible
● Lets conflicts simmer/heat up rather than working
through them

196. Competition (I win, you lose)
• Advantages
● Useful when you need to make a quick,
decisive action
● Useful when the goal is more important than
the relationship
• Disadvantages
● Can harm the relationship
● May encourage others to be passive-
aggressive

197. Compromising (You give, I give)
• Advantages
● Can accomplish important goals in relatively short time
● Appears reasonable to most parties
• Disadvantages
● Can become an easy way out, when other solutions
might work better (a sophisticated form of avoidance)
● May be seen as lose-lose

198. Accommodating
(You win)
• Advantages
● Useful when you find out you’ve been wrong
● You can give a little and gain a lot if the issue’s
not important to you
● Allows harmony of relationship
• Disadvantages
● Can be harmful to the relationship if one person
always gives in, and the other always gets their
way

199. Collaboration (We both win)
• Advantages
● Generates new ideas
● Shows respect for the other party
● Gains commitment to the solution from both parties
● Affirms importance of relationship
● Builds team approach to conflict management
● Demonstrates that conflict can be productive
• Disadvantages
● May not be worth the time and energy involved
● Can be manipulative

200. Dimensions of Conflict-Handling
(B)
Collaborati
ng(E)
Compromising
(C)
Avoiding
(D)
Accommodatin
g
(A)
Competing
Uncooperative
AssertiveUnassertive
Cooperative
Cooperativeness
Assertiveness
Cooperativeness: degree to which one party attempts to satisfy the other’s party concerns.
Assertiveness : degree to which one party attempts to satisfy his own concerns.
lose / lose lose / win
win / lose
win some / lose
some
win / win

201. Performing stage

202. 1.The level of work group cohesiveness
2.The performance goals set by the group
3.The degree of agreement between group
performance goals and organizational performance
goals.
Factors which influence work groups
performance

203. DELPHI TECHNIQUE
• Used when members can not attend a meeting.
• It is a method for gathering systematically written
judgments from members using a set of
questionnaire.
• Members of the group may not know the other
group members
• It needs central coordinating mechanisms to
manage the alteration, transmission and
summarizing the questionnaire data.

204. Are Delphi Groups Effective?
• Evidence indicates that Delphi groups can be more effective.
• The average performance was higher for Delphi groups than
for undisciplined groups both working on a comparable
problem solving task.
• Delphi groups eliminate the effects of dominant personalities
on group decision making and the effects of perceived
member status on group decision making.
• E. mail systems and the World Wide Web create obvious
advantages to the use of Delphi groups.
• Delphi groups are quite different from nominal groups.

205. Social Loafing in groups
• Members who do not perform their fair share of the group’s work.
• They are practitioners of the fine art of social loafing because they
cause average member effort and performance to decline as
group size increases.
Explanations for social loafing:
1) Equity of effort
2) Loss of personal responsibility (‘It’s a large group, no one will miss
me)
3) Reduced effort caused by reward sharing (‘Everyone is paid the
same, so why should I put in extra hours?’
4) Coordination complexity in larger groups

206. Reduction of Social Loafing in
Groups
1 Focus on the interesting and important aspects of the task.
2 Assure members that their contributions are identifiable .
3 Tell group members that they should not tolerate inadequate
effort or performance from group members.
4 They should expect to have their performance evaluated.
5 Ensure that some portion of rewards received by group
members is dependent on their performance.

207. Leading

208. Leaders Are Born, Not Made
• Can anyone disagree that people like Abraham
Lincoln and Franklin Roosevelt were gifted political
leaders? Or that Joan of Arc and George Patton
were brilliant and courageous military leaders? Or
that Henry Ford, Jack Welch, Steve Jobs, and
Rupert Murdoch are gifted business leaders? As one
reviewer of the literature put it, “Leaders are not like
other people.” These leaders are great leaders
because they have the right stuff—stuff the rest of us
don’t have, or have in lesser quantities

209. Leadership
✓ The ability to influence people toward the attainment of
organizational goals.
✓ Leadership is dynamic and involves the use of power.

210. Influence is acquired
through “ARATA” being:
Admired
Respected
Appreciated
Trusted
Accepted

211. Leaders vs. Managers
Leaders
• Innovate
• Develop
• Inspire
• Long-term view
• Ask “what & why”
• Originate
• Challenge status quo
• Do the right things
Managers
• Administer
• Maintain
• Control
• Short-term view
• Ask “how & when”
• Imitate
• Accept status quo
• Do things right

212. What are the sources of power
for a manager??

213. • Legitimate power is the power someone has because
others recognize and accept his or her authority
• Reward power is the power to control the rewards
others receive
• Coercive power is the capacity to control punishment
• Information power is the power a person has by virtue
of his or her access to valuable data or knowledge
Position Power

214. • Rational persuasion is the power leaders have by virtue
of the logical arguments and factual evidence they
provide to support their arguments
• Expert power is the power leaders have to the extent
that others recognize their expert knowledge on a topic
• Referent power is the power that individuals have
because they are liked and admired by others
• Charisma is the power someone has over others
because of his or her engaging and magnetic personality
Personal Power

216. Charismatic leadership
Leaders who have the ability to inspire and
motivate people to do more than they would
normally do despite obstacles and personal
sacrifice

217. Charismatic leaders
• Charismatic leaders earn
followers’ trust by being willing to
incur great personal risk
• According to a personal friend of
the king family, Martin Luther King
received death threats against
himself and his family almost
every day during the civil rights
movement
• By taking risks leaders enhance
their emotional appeal to followers

218. Charismatic leaders
• Passion & Enthusiasm!
● If you’re not passionate, why should we
care?
• Example: Martin Luther King.
● I have a dream…
that one day
this nation will rise up;
live up to the true meaning to its creed:
We hold these truths to be self-evident
that all men are created equal.

219. The black Hat of charisma
• One characteristic of charisma noted by most
researchers is that it can be a curse as well as a
blessing
• Because the basis of charisma is emotional
rather than logical or rational, it is risky and
potentially dangerous

220. The black Hat of charisma
• One explanation for the distinction between
charisma that results in positive outcomes and
that which results in negative outcomes relates to
the differences between personalized leaders
and socialized leaders
• Personalized behavior is based on caring about
self while socialized behavior is based on valuing
others

221. What is leadership style?

222. Centralized, Democratic, Directed Free,
Dictatorial and Participative undecided and
Autocratic undirected
Leadership Styles
Balancing among a number of styles will always support the
management and supervisory systems

223. ➢Centralizes authority
➢Restrictive
➢Dictates work
➢Close supervision
➢Limits people participation
Autocratic = Directive

224. Suitable if:
■ People need training
■ People in conflict
■ People challenge authority
Autocratic = Directive

225. Democratic style
● A leader who involves employees in decision
making, delegates authority, encourages
participation in deciding work methods and goals,
and uses feedback to coach employees
● A democratic-consultative leader seeks input and
hears the concerns and issues of employees but
makes the final decision him or herself
● A democratic-participative leader often allows
employees to have a say in what’s decided

226. ■ Shares decisions
■ Builds morale
■ Coaches people
■ Avoids conflict
■ Cares for group
■ Friendly
Democratic style

227. Suitable if:
■ People’s authority relations clear
■ People’s jobs are repetitive
■ People’s responsibility is clear
Democratic style

228. ■ People have complete freedom
■ People decide
■ Leader in the shadow
Laissez Faire = Delegating

229. Suitable if:
■ People are skilled
■ People are achievers
■ People are self motivated
Laissez Faire = Delegating

231. Thank You