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Peace be upon you all
Chapter 3
Discourse Analysis & Grammar
Discourse Analysis and Grammar (cohesive devices)
❖IELTS
➢ Band descriptors “Marking criteria”
“Basics of text analysis” Coherence and Cohesion.
 Lexical resource.
 Grammatical structures & Accurcy.
What is cohesion?
❖ Cohesion refers to the way we use vocabulary and
grammatical structures to make connections
between ideas within a text. Cohesion helps to create
coherence.
▪ Cohesive Devices/Ties
➢ Connectors
➢ Linkers
➢ Transitional words
➢ Discourse markers
▪ Words and phrases like conjunctions, synonyms, pronouns, and
transitional phrases.
▪ They are devices permitting to link or bind or relate ideas or words
in a sentence as they can tell the reader what we are doing in a sentence
and guides them through our writing piece.
Cohesive
devices
Reference
Substitution&
Ellipsis
Conjunction
Reference
• The term reference is used to define the relationship
between a word and what it points to,
• or the relationship between two linguistic expressions
(Holliday1976).
References
Endophoric
Anaphora Cataphora
Exophoric
Endophoric
Anaphora Cataphora
Anaphora
(Looking backward=Reference back )
• It is a word refers back to another word in the sentence,
meaning the same in order to avoid repetition.
➢ E.g. Yusuf likes ice cream but I cannot eat it.
➢ E.g. The student saw herself in the mirror.
Antecedent
 An earlier word, phrase, clause to which a following
pronoun refers to.
Anaphora
My father once bought a Lincoln convertible.
He did it by saving every penny he could. That
car would be worth a fortune nowadays.
However, he sold it to help pay for my college
education. Sometimes I think I’d rather have
the convertible.
Convertible: (of a car) having a folding or detachable roof.
Anaphora
My father once bought a Lincoln convertible.
He did it by saving every penny he could. That
car would be worth a fortune nowadays.
However, he sold it to help pay for my college
education. Sometimes I think I’d rather have
the convertible.
My father bought a Lincoln convertible. The
car driven by the police was red. That color
doesn’t suit her. She consists of three letters.
However, a letter isn’t as fast as a telephone
call.
❖ Many cohesive devices, but a text very hard to interpret. We
don‟t see any coherence but there is a cohesion.
“Cohesive doesn’t mean coherent”
Endophoric
Anaphora Cataphora
Cataphora
(Looking Forward=Reference forward)
❖ When referring to something that is not mentioned yet.
❖ It is a word in the text that refers to another to invite
the reader to go forward and read to understand.
E.g. If you want them, there are cookies in the kitchen.
Cataphoric reference
Cataphora
E.g. If you want some, here’s some karish cheese.
Examples:
E.g. After he had received his orders, the soldier left the barracks.
Postcedent
Cataphora
She claims Leo Tolstoy as a distant cousin. Now,
Tatyana Tolstoy has put pen to Paper…
She claims Leo Tolstoy as a distant cousin. Now,
Tatyana Tolstoy has put pen to paper…
Exophoric
• refers to something external to the text. Looking
outward- outside the text.
• It refers to the reader`s general knowledge.
• E.g. The president ordered that people have the
right to free internet connection.
➢ The president is the Exophoric Reference because here we are
expected to know who is the president.
• Some linguists see no real distinction between
anaphoric and exophoric reference.
Exophoric
Refers to something external to the text.Exophoric
• (Looking outward- outside the text)
• It is an idea which is outside the text and which we are
supposed to know without being mentioned .
• It refers to the reader`s general knowledge.
Refers back to a previous word.Anaphora
• (Looking backward)
• Such as : he/she or them ,it, this, here or there.
Refers to sth that is not mentioned yet.Cataphora
• (Looking Forward)
• Such as : he/she or them ,it, this, here or there.
Ellipsis and Substitution
• It is the leaving out of words or phrases from
sentences where they are unnecessary because they
have already been referred to or mentioned.
Ellipsis
 It is the omission of elements required by the grammar which
the speaker/writer assumes are obvious from the context and
therefore need not be raised.
E.g. The children will carry the small boxes, the adults the large ones.
E.g. The man went to the door and opened it.
E.g. Umar ate the apple and Sara a pear. Verb ellipsis
Subject ellipsis
 English has three types of ellipsis: nominal, verbal and
clausal.
✓ The nominal ellipsis often involves omission of a noun
headword.
Ellipsis
✓ E.g. Nelly Dean liked the green tiles; myself I preferred the blue.
✓ E.g. Yusuf was the first person to leave. I was the second.
Nominal ellipsis
✓ E.g. They are few sheets of paper; take two.
❖ Verbal ellipsis involves two types: echoing and auxiliary
contrasting.
Ellipsis
▪ E.g. A) Will anyone be waiting?
B) Jim, will
• “Auxiliary contrasting” when the helping verb changes.
• “Echoing” repeats an element from the verbal group.
▪ E.g. A) Has she remarried?
B) No, but she will one day.
❖ With clausal ellipsis, individual clause may be omitted.
Ellipsis
• He said he would take early retirement as soon as he could
and he has.
• I don’t know how to work this computer. I’ll have to learn how.
to work the computer
Substitution
• 3 types of classification are:
• Nominal
• Verbal
• Clausal
• In the nominal substitution, the most typical substitutional words
are ’’ONE and ONES’’ and they substitute nouns.
• E.g. Do you want the blankets?
Nominal Substitution for blankets
Yes, I ‘ll take one.
Substitution
• E.g. A) Did you find the blankets?
B) Only the blue one.
Nominal Substitution for blankets
• Secondly, In the Verbal substitution, the most common
substitute is the verb ‘Do’.
• E.g. Did you sing?
Yes, I did.
Verbal Substitution for ’’sang’’
Substitution
• Finally, In the clausal substitution, an entire clause is substituted.
• E.g. I went to lock the gate, but I found that somebody had
already done so.
Verbal Substitution for ’’locked the door’’
• E.g. The blankets needed to be cleaned.
Yup, they did.
Clausal Substitution for ’needed to be cleaned’’
Conjunctions
• A type of cohesive devices
• The conjunction help us interpret the relation between clauses.
Conjunctions
Conjunctions
Conjunctions
❖ There are several ways to show cause-effect relationship:
• He was insensitive. Consequently, there was bad feeling.
• He was insensitive. As a Consequence, there was bad feeling.
• As a Consequence of his insensitivity, there was bad feeling.
Conjunctions
• The wide use of “and”
• She is intelligent, and she’s reliable.
• I lived here for ten years, and I have never heard of this pub.
• He fell in the river and caught a chill.
• I got up and made my breakfast.
Additive
Causal
Temporal sequence
Adversative
THANKS!
Egypt
Damanhour university,
Faculty of education,
English dept.
2018

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Discourse Analysis and Grammar (cohesive devices)

  • 1. Peace be upon you all
  • 4. ❖IELTS ➢ Band descriptors “Marking criteria” “Basics of text analysis” Coherence and Cohesion.  Lexical resource.  Grammatical structures & Accurcy.
  • 5. What is cohesion? ❖ Cohesion refers to the way we use vocabulary and grammatical structures to make connections between ideas within a text. Cohesion helps to create coherence.
  • 6. ▪ Cohesive Devices/Ties ➢ Connectors ➢ Linkers ➢ Transitional words ➢ Discourse markers ▪ Words and phrases like conjunctions, synonyms, pronouns, and transitional phrases. ▪ They are devices permitting to link or bind or relate ideas or words in a sentence as they can tell the reader what we are doing in a sentence and guides them through our writing piece.
  • 8. Reference • The term reference is used to define the relationship between a word and what it points to, • or the relationship between two linguistic expressions (Holliday1976).
  • 11. Anaphora (Looking backward=Reference back ) • It is a word refers back to another word in the sentence, meaning the same in order to avoid repetition. ➢ E.g. Yusuf likes ice cream but I cannot eat it. ➢ E.g. The student saw herself in the mirror. Antecedent  An earlier word, phrase, clause to which a following pronoun refers to.
  • 12. Anaphora My father once bought a Lincoln convertible. He did it by saving every penny he could. That car would be worth a fortune nowadays. However, he sold it to help pay for my college education. Sometimes I think I’d rather have the convertible. Convertible: (of a car) having a folding or detachable roof.
  • 13. Anaphora My father once bought a Lincoln convertible. He did it by saving every penny he could. That car would be worth a fortune nowadays. However, he sold it to help pay for my college education. Sometimes I think I’d rather have the convertible.
  • 14. My father bought a Lincoln convertible. The car driven by the police was red. That color doesn’t suit her. She consists of three letters. However, a letter isn’t as fast as a telephone call. ❖ Many cohesive devices, but a text very hard to interpret. We don‟t see any coherence but there is a cohesion. “Cohesive doesn’t mean coherent”
  • 16. Cataphora (Looking Forward=Reference forward) ❖ When referring to something that is not mentioned yet. ❖ It is a word in the text that refers to another to invite the reader to go forward and read to understand. E.g. If you want them, there are cookies in the kitchen. Cataphoric reference
  • 17. Cataphora E.g. If you want some, here’s some karish cheese. Examples: E.g. After he had received his orders, the soldier left the barracks. Postcedent
  • 18. Cataphora She claims Leo Tolstoy as a distant cousin. Now, Tatyana Tolstoy has put pen to Paper… She claims Leo Tolstoy as a distant cousin. Now, Tatyana Tolstoy has put pen to paper…
  • 19. Exophoric • refers to something external to the text. Looking outward- outside the text. • It refers to the reader`s general knowledge. • E.g. The president ordered that people have the right to free internet connection. ➢ The president is the Exophoric Reference because here we are expected to know who is the president.
  • 20. • Some linguists see no real distinction between anaphoric and exophoric reference. Exophoric
  • 21. Refers to something external to the text.Exophoric • (Looking outward- outside the text) • It is an idea which is outside the text and which we are supposed to know without being mentioned . • It refers to the reader`s general knowledge. Refers back to a previous word.Anaphora • (Looking backward) • Such as : he/she or them ,it, this, here or there. Refers to sth that is not mentioned yet.Cataphora • (Looking Forward) • Such as : he/she or them ,it, this, here or there.
  • 22. Ellipsis and Substitution • It is the leaving out of words or phrases from sentences where they are unnecessary because they have already been referred to or mentioned.
  • 23. Ellipsis  It is the omission of elements required by the grammar which the speaker/writer assumes are obvious from the context and therefore need not be raised. E.g. The children will carry the small boxes, the adults the large ones. E.g. The man went to the door and opened it. E.g. Umar ate the apple and Sara a pear. Verb ellipsis Subject ellipsis
  • 24.  English has three types of ellipsis: nominal, verbal and clausal. ✓ The nominal ellipsis often involves omission of a noun headword. Ellipsis ✓ E.g. Nelly Dean liked the green tiles; myself I preferred the blue. ✓ E.g. Yusuf was the first person to leave. I was the second. Nominal ellipsis ✓ E.g. They are few sheets of paper; take two.
  • 25. ❖ Verbal ellipsis involves two types: echoing and auxiliary contrasting. Ellipsis ▪ E.g. A) Will anyone be waiting? B) Jim, will • “Auxiliary contrasting” when the helping verb changes. • “Echoing” repeats an element from the verbal group. ▪ E.g. A) Has she remarried? B) No, but she will one day.
  • 26. ❖ With clausal ellipsis, individual clause may be omitted. Ellipsis • He said he would take early retirement as soon as he could and he has. • I don’t know how to work this computer. I’ll have to learn how. to work the computer
  • 27. Substitution • 3 types of classification are: • Nominal • Verbal • Clausal • In the nominal substitution, the most typical substitutional words are ’’ONE and ONES’’ and they substitute nouns. • E.g. Do you want the blankets? Nominal Substitution for blankets Yes, I ‘ll take one.
  • 28. Substitution • E.g. A) Did you find the blankets? B) Only the blue one. Nominal Substitution for blankets • Secondly, In the Verbal substitution, the most common substitute is the verb ‘Do’. • E.g. Did you sing? Yes, I did. Verbal Substitution for ’’sang’’
  • 29. Substitution • Finally, In the clausal substitution, an entire clause is substituted. • E.g. I went to lock the gate, but I found that somebody had already done so. Verbal Substitution for ’’locked the door’’ • E.g. The blankets needed to be cleaned. Yup, they did. Clausal Substitution for ’needed to be cleaned’’
  • 30. Conjunctions • A type of cohesive devices • The conjunction help us interpret the relation between clauses.
  • 33. Conjunctions ❖ There are several ways to show cause-effect relationship: • He was insensitive. Consequently, there was bad feeling. • He was insensitive. As a Consequence, there was bad feeling. • As a Consequence of his insensitivity, there was bad feeling.
  • 34. Conjunctions • The wide use of “and” • She is intelligent, and she’s reliable. • I lived here for ten years, and I have never heard of this pub. • He fell in the river and caught a chill. • I got up and made my breakfast. Additive Causal Temporal sequence Adversative
  • 35. THANKS! Egypt Damanhour university, Faculty of education, English dept. 2018