Pathophysiology of Normal Labor:
A series of events that take place in female genital organs to expel the product of conception that are fetus, placenta, membranes) out of womb through the vagina into the outer world. We further describe pathogenesis and features of different stages of labor
2. DEFINITION
A series of events that take place in female genital organs to
expel the product of conception that are fetus, placenta,
membranes) out of womb through the vagina into the outer
world.
At the National Maternity Hospital in Dublin (O’Driscoll and colleagues,
1984). Criteria for onset of labor:
at term require painful uterine contractions accompanied by any one of
the following:
(1) ruptured membranes, (2) bloody “show,” or (3) complete cervical
effacement.
3. NORMAL LABOR/
EUTOCIA spontaneous in onset and at term
with vertex presentation
without undue prolongation
Natural termination without minimal aid
without having any complications affecting the health of the mother
and/or the baby
4. Causes of onset of labour
Uterine distension
Fetoplacental contribution
activation of fetal hypothalamic pituitary axis
Increase CRT Increase ACTH Fetal adrenals
Increase cortisol secretion Accelerated production
of oestrogen and PG from the placenta
5. Oestrogen
Increases release of oxytocin from maternal pituitary
Promotes synthesis of myometrial receptors for oxytocin, prostaglandin.
Stimulates synthesis of myometrial contraction protein
Increases excitability of myometrial cell
Progesterone:
Alteration of oestrogen and progesterone ratio is associated with PG
synthesis.
6. Prostaglandin
Major site of production: Amnion,chorion, decidual cells and
myometrium
Triggered by rise in estrogen, glucocorticoids, mechanical stretching
in late pregnancy, separation or rupture of membrane
Enhances gap junction formation
Oxytocin
Actions
o Stimulate uterine contractions
o Stimulate PG production from amnion/decidua
7. TRUE AND FALSE LABOR
True labor
o Uterine contractions at regular intervals
o Contraction frequency, intensity, duration
increases gradually
o Associated with show
o Progressive effacement and dilatation of
cervix
o Descent of presenting part
o Formation of “bags of water”
o Not relieved by enema/ sedative
False labor
o Dull pain confined to groin and
abdomen
o Pain interval doesn’t shorten
o Pain intensity remains same
o No cervical dilatation
o No hardening of uterus
o Relieved by enema or sedative
8.
9. Physiology of normal labour
Marked hypertrophy and hyperplasia of uterine muscles
Length of uterus + cervix = 35 cm at term
Uterus assumes pyriform/ ovoid shape
Cervical canal occluded by thick, tenacious mucus plug
10. PATTERN OF CONTRACTION
o Good synchronization of contraction waves from both
halves of the uterus
o Fundal dominance
o Regular wave of contraction
o Intra-amniotic pressure rises beyond 20mm Hg during
uterine contraction
o Good relaxation occurs in between contraction
11. RETRACTION
Phenomenon of uterus in labor in which muscle fibers are permanently
shortened
Effects of retraction:
o Formation of lower uterine segment and dilatation and effacement of cervix
o Decent of presenting part expulsion of fetus
o Reduce surface area separation of placenta
o Effective homeostasis after separation of placenta
12. STAGES OF LABOR
First phase
Second phase
Propulsive
Expulsive
Third phase
Fourth phase
13. FIRST STAGE
Concerned with formation of birth canal
Main events:
o Dilatation of cervix and effacement of cervix
o Lower uterine segment formation
15. FACTORS RESPONSIBLE IN
DILATATION
Fetal axis pressure
longitudinal lie of fetus
circular muscles contraction
Fundal contraction to transmit
from podalic pole to head
Bag of membrane
Vis-a-tergo
16. EFFACEMENT OF CERVIX
Muscular fibers of cervix pulled upward and merge
with fibers of lower uterine segment
Primigravidae: effacement before dilation of cervix
Multiparae: effacement and dilatation occur at same
time
17. Latent Phase
3 to 5 cm of dilation
After that clinically active labor can be expected
Prolonged latent phase:
> 20 hours in nullipara and 14 hours in multipara
(Friedman and Sachtleben)
Following heavy sedation:
1. 85 percent to active labor
2. 10 percent uterine contraction ceased
3. 5 % persisted: require oxytocin stimulation
19. Active Phase
Cervical dilation of 3 to 5 cm in presence of uterine
contractions: threshold for active labor
Cervical dilatation: 1.2 to 6.8 cm/hour. Multiparas:
minimum 1.5 cm/hr
Descent begins after 7 to 8 cm dilation, most rapid
after 8 cm
21. SECOND STAGE OF
LABOR
Begins when cervical dilatation is complete and ends
with fetal delivery.
Median duration
2 hr in primigravidae
30 minutes in multiparae
Uterine contractions and accompanying expulsive
forces last:
60-90 seconds and
recur every 60 seconds
22. Events
Propulsive phase:
Period of full dilation until head touches pelvic floor
Expulsive phase:
Since the time mother has irresistible desire to ‘bear
down’ and push until the baby is delivered
23. THIRD STAGE OF LABOR
Includes separation, descent and
expulsion of placenta with its membrane.
25. Signs of placental separation:
The uterus becomes globular and as a rule, firm-
woody
Sudden gush of blood
Uterus rises in abdomen because the placenta,
having separated, passes down in the lower uterine
segment and vagina.
Umbilical cord protrudes farther out of the vagina,
indicating that the placenta has descended.
26. FOURTH STAGE OF LABOR
The placenta, membranes and umbilical cord should be examined
for completeness and for anomalies
Laceration of birth canal(vagina and perineum):
First degree laceration: Involved the perineal skin, vaginal mucus
membrane but not underlying fascia and muscle
2nd degree laceration: Involve in addition, the fascia and muscle of
perineal body but not anal sphincter
3rd degree laceration: Extent further to involve the anal sphincter
4th degree laceration: Laceration extend through the rectum’s
mucosa to exposed its lumen
27. MANAGEMENT OF FIRST STAGE
LABOR
1. Rest and ambulation
2. Oral intake
3. Urinary bladder function
Bladder distention-avoided, because it can hinder descent of the fetal
presenting parts
4. Pain relief
5. Monitoring fetal well-being during labor
6. Uterine contractions
to evaluate the frequency, duration, and intensity of uterine
contractions.
28. CONTD..
8. Maternal vital signs
Maternal temperature, pulse, and blood pressure are evaluated at
least every 4 hours
with prolonged membrane rupture(>18 hours) antimicrobial
administration for prevention of group B streptococcal infections is
recommended
9. Subsequent vaginal examinations
10.Maternal position
position that she finds most comfortable, which will be lateral
recumbency most of the time
29. Management of second stage labor
Assist in natural expulsion of fetus slowly and steadily
Prevent perineal injuries
1. Preparation for delivery
• Put the patient in dorsal lithotomy position or lying flat on
bed
• Clean the vulva, and perineum with antiseptic solution
• Clean hands, Clean surface, Clean cutting and ligaturing of
the cord
• Catheterize the bladder, if full
30. 2. Conduction of delivery
Delivery of head:
• Maintain flexion of the head
• Prevent early extension
• Regulate the escape out of vulval outlet
31. • Patient asked for bearing down efforts
during uterine contractions
• When the scalp is visible for about 5cm in
diameter, push occiput downward and
backwards using thumb and index fingers
while pressing the perineum by right hand
with sterile vulval pad
• BPD stretches the vulval outlet without
any recession of the head even after the
contraction is over
32. • With each contraction, perineum bulge increasing
• Slow delivery of the head in between the contractions
• Ritgen maneuver:
• A towel-draped ,gloved hand –used to exert forward
pressure on the chin of fetus through the perineum
• This maneuver allow delivery of head and also favors
the neck extension so that head is delivered with small
diameter
33.
34. Management of third stage labor
Expectant management
• Placental separation and its descent into the vagina are
allowed to occur spontaneously
• Constant watch
• Changed to dorsal position
• Hand placed over the fundus (signs of separation, state
of uterine activity, detect inversion of uterus)
• Expulsion of placenta
• Patient asked to bear down
• Placenta grasped by hands and twisted round and
round with gentle traction
36. • Examination of
placenta
• Maternal surface:
completeness, anomalies
• Membranes:
completeness, abnormal
vessels
• Cord: number of vessels
37. Active management
• To excite powerful uterine contractions within one
minute of delivery of the baby by giving parenteral
oxytocic
• Injection Oxytocin 10 units IM
• Controlled Cord Traction
• Massaging the uterus
• To minimise blood loss in third stage to approx 1/5th
• To shorten the duration of third stage to half
• Disadvantage: increased incidence of retained placenta and
consequent increased incidence of manual removal
• Not to be used in cardiac failure, severe pre-eclampsia
38.
39. Management of fourth stage labor
• Suture the episiotomy or any laceration
• Estimate blood loss, take cord blood for Hb, blood group, Rh,
bilirubin, and Coomb’s test for Rh negative mother
• Check BP, Pulse, Temperature, abnormal vaginal bleeding and
firmness of the uterus before transferring the patient
41. Engagement
• The mechanism by which the
Biparietal Diameter- the greatest
transverse diameter in occiput
presentation crosses the pelvic
inlet.
• Fetal head enters the pelvic inlet
either transversely or obliquely.
1. Head floating before
engagement
2. Engagement, descent and
flexion
42. Asynclitism
The lateral deflection of the sagital suture anteriorly toward
pubic symphysis or posteriorly towards sacral promontory.
Anterior asynclitism:
Sagital suture approaches sacral promontory
Anterior parietal presentation
Posterior asynclitism:
Sagital suture approaches pubic symphysis
Posterior parietal presentation
43. Descent
• Downward passage of the presenting part
through the pelvis
• Forces involved:-
Pressure of amniotic fluid
Pressure of fundus upon breech with contraction
Bearing down efforts of maternal abdominal muscles
Extension and straightening of fetal body
44. Flexion
• Occurs passively as the head
descends
• Resistance from cervix, pelvic walls,
pelvic floor
• Chin is brought into intimate
contact with the fetal thorax
• Longer occipitofrontal diameter
replaced by shorter suboccipito
bregmatic diameter
2. Engagement, descent and
flexion
45. Internal Rotation
• Turning of head in such a manner that the occiput
gradually moves towards the symphysis pubis anteriorly
from its original position.
3. Further descent and beginning of
internal rotation
4. Completion of internal rotation
46. Extension
• The sharply flexed head reaches the vulva and
undergoes extension
• Driving force exerted by uterus
• Resistance offered by pelvic floor and symphysis
• Resultant vector: direction of vulvar opening causing
head extension
• Occiput in direct contact with the inferior margin of
symphysis pubis
47. External Rotation
•Movement of rotation of head visible externally due to the
internal rotation of the shoulders
•Anterior shoulder rotates towards symphysis pubis from
oblique diameter
•Occiput points directly toward maternal thigh
corresponding to the side to which it
originally directed at the time of engagement.
48. Expulsion
• Shoulders positioned in
anteroposterior diameter
• Anterior shoulder escapes below
pubic symphysis
• Lateral flexion of spine, the posterior
shoulder sweeps over the perineum
• Rest of the trunk expelled out by
lateral flexion
7. Delivery of anterior
shoulder
ABNORMAL LABOR/ DYSTOCIA: DEVIATION FROM NORMAL LABOR
Bags of water: detached membrane with liquor that presents below the presenting part; almost certain sign of labor
False pain/ suurious labor is usual in primimother, 1-2 weeks prior to labor, may be due to stretching of cervix or lower uterine segment
Prelabor: lightening (good sign:presenting part sinks to true pelvis) + false pain + ripening of cervix (soft, 80%effaced, dilatable)
Normal polarity of uterus: contraction starts from the fallopian tube fundus contracts more than lower segment when fundus contracts to push fetus, lower segment and cervix dialate in response to force
Bag of membrane:—The membranes (amnion and chorion) are attached loosely to the decidua lining the uterine cavity except over the internal os. In vertex presentation, the girdle of contact of the head (that part of the circumference of the head which first comes in contact with the pelvic brim) being spherical, may well fit with the wall of the lower uterine segment. Thus, the amniotic cavity is divided into two compartments (Fig. 12.5). The part above the girdle of contact contains the fetus with bulk of the liquor called hindwaters and the one below it containing small amount of liquor called forewaters. With the onset of labor, the membranes attached to the lower uterine segment are detached and with the rise of intrauterine pressure during contractions there is herniation of the membranes through the cervical canal. There is ball-valve like action by the well flexed head. Uterine contractions generate hydrostatic pressure in the forewaters that in turn dilate the cervical canal like a wedge. When the bag of forewater is absent (PROM) the pressure of the presenting part pushes the cervix centrifugally
Vis- a-tergo: The final phase of dilatation and retraction of the cervix is achieved by downward thrust of the presenting part of the fetus and upward pull of the cervix over the lower segment. This phenomenon is lacking in transverse lie where a thin cervical rim fails to disappear.
First degree laceration:
Involved the perineal skin, vaginal mucus membrane but not underlying fascia and muscle
2nd degree laceration:
Involve in addition, the fascia and muscle of perineal body but not anal sphincter
3rd degree laceration:
Extent further to involve the anal sphincter
4th degree laceration:
Laceration extend through the rectum’s mucosa to exposed its lumen
The Ritgen maneuver is an obstetric procedure used by midwives and doctors in order to control the delivery of the fetal head. It involves applying an upward pressure from the coccygeal region to extend the head during actual delivery, thereby protecting the musculature of theperineum.